Victim Empathy Research Articles

Defining Effective Probation: Frontline Perspectives

In probation and, in Scotland, in criminal justice social work, the evaluation of effectiveness is fraught with difficulty. Engaging workers in the process of defining effective probation and in developing effectiveness measures is essential if workers are to have any investment in evaluation. The research study reported here attempted to explore workers' definitions of effective probation and found evidence of considerable diversity of opinion on this vital issue. In general though, workers preferred to measure effectiveness in terms of ‘outputs’ or ‘outcomes’– reducing reoffending, changing attitudes, increasing victim empathy and alleviating needs. The study concluded that there are some grounds for cautious optimism about the capacity, opportunity and motivation of criminal justice social workers to rise to the challenge that the effectiveness agenda represents. However, effectiveness evaluation needs to be enacted in a pluralistic manner, recognising the ethical and practical complexity of the issue, as well as the diversity of workers' perspectives.

The nature of sexual offenders' affective empathy: a grounded theory analysis.

The aim of this research was to investigate the nature of sexual offenders' affective empathy. Thirty-one men participating in a residential treatment program for child abusers constructed "victim apology letters" as a way of measuring/examining empathy deficits. The task was videotaped, transcribed, and subject to grounded theory techniques. It was discovered that intrafamilial offenders were more likely to minimize their behavior while exhibiting illicit power and control, whereas extrafamilial offenders were more likely to directly blame their victims and exhibit overtly explicit offense detail. From these open-coded categories, the axial categories of self as nonoffender, external blaming, and secondary victimization were derived. These results may have implications for the delivery of victim empathy components of sexual offender treatment programs.

Using wilderness therapy in treating adolescent sexual offenders

This article describes a follow-up study of 14 adolescent sexual offenders who had attended a community treatment programme. A core component of their treatment included outdoor wilderness group therapy. Interviews were conducted with adolescents and parents and tapped several areas including social skills and peer relationships, victim empathy, cognitive distortions, safety plans and coping with high risk situations, sexual offending cycle, perceived level of risk, intimacy and sexuality. The study also examined the child protection service records of the It adolescents. Data from child protection service computer records showed that none of the adolescents had reoffended. Interviews with adolescents and families focusing particularly on the wilderness component of the programme showed positive changes.

Comparison of Sex Offenders to Nonoffenders on Selected Psychological Measures

A group of 140 child molesters (59 participating in community-based sex offender treatment programs and 81 incarcerated child molesters) were compared on a range of psychological measures to a group of 81 nonoffenders. Child molesters were found to be significantly lower in self-esteem, higher on emotional loneliness and personal distress, and to show deficits in victim empathy. Further differences were found between high- and low-deviancy offenders in terms of assertiveness, perspective taking, cognitive distortions regarding children, and emotional congruence with children. General empathy did not appear to be directly related to empathy for one’s own victim and the presence of cognitive distortions was only significant in high-deviancy child molesters. Some victim-blaming attitudes and distorted thinking regarding children and sex were found in the nonoffender group.

Empathy

Enhancement of empathy for victims of sexual abuse may foster a more meaningful therapeutic involvement in sex offenders and may deter relapses. The author presents three studies. In experiment one, a contextual empathy deficit was manifested by sexual abusers while they were experiencing the mood state that preceded their past offenses. In experiment two, a process evaluation of a structured empathy enhancing treatment group was performed. In experiment three, abusers who had completed the empathy enhancing treatment group were again required to complete the empathy measure while experiencing the mood precursive to past offenses. Collectively, these experiments demonstrated that: (a) a contextual empathy deficit existed when sexual abusers were experiencing affective precursors to abuse, (b) specialized treatment enhanced abusers' empathy for victims, and (c) treatment effectively eliminated the contextual empathy deficit that was otherwise evident during precursive moods. Empathy enhancement for sexual abuse survivors must be regarded as a key component of sexual abuser treatment programs.

The use of psychodrama to enhance victim empathy in sex offenders: An evaluation

This study examined the effectiveness of using psychodrama to enhance victim empathy in a group of 9 male sex offenders attending a probation service treatment programme in England. The group consisted of 6 child abusers and 3 men who had indecently assaulted women. The psychodrama element took place over 20 sessions and was evaluated with the aid of psychometric tests administered pre and post-intervention. This article focuses specifically on the impact of the intervention on victim empathy and on distortions about the sexual sophistication of children. The hypothesis that the psychodrama input would enhance empathy for victims was supported by the results, which showed statistically significant improvements in levels of empathy for both child and adult victims of sexual abuse. In addition, it was found that clients had significantly lower levels of distortions about child sexuality post-intervention. These findings are encouraging and suggest that using psychodrama in sex offender treatment is worthy of further investigation.

Sexually aggressive and nonaggressive men: Sexual arousal and judgments in response to acquaintance rape and consensual analogues.

Self-identified sexually aggressive (SA) and nonaggressive (NA) college men listened to audiotape analogues of consensual sexual intercourse and acquaintance rape. Phallometric and decision-latency methodology was used to examine sexual arousal and decisions to stop sexual advances in each scenario. Both groups showed increases in penile response to the consensual scenario. Consistent with the inhibition model of sexual aggression, the SA group showed greater sexual arousal and failed to inhibit responding when force was introduced in the rape, whereas the NA group exhibited less arousal and greater inhibition to force. The SA group allowed the rape to continue significantly longer than the NA group. These effects were greatly magnified in SA men who endorsed high calloused sexual beliefs, implying that a cognitive set that justifies sexual aggression and lacks victim empathy may disinhibit sexual arousal and potentiate coercive decision making.

The child molester empathy measure: description and examination of its reliability and validity.

The aim of the two studies presented here was to produce and refine a measure of victim empathy for the assessment of child molesters. In the first study, 61 nonfamilial child molesters completed the Child Molester Empathy Measure (CMEM), a questionnaire designed specifically for this study. The measure assessed empathy in three contexts: (a) toward a child who was in a motor vehicle accident and was disfigured, (b) toward a child who had been sexually molested by an unknown assailant over a period of time, and (c) toward the offender's own victim(s). Results indicated that the measure was both internally reliable and produced stable responses over time. The results also revealed a relative deficit in empathy toward the offender's own victim(s). The goal of the second study was to replicate the data obtained in the first study and compare child molesters' responses with the responses of a group of nonoffenders. Twenty-nine child molesters and 36 community males (nonoffenders) completed the questionnaire. This study also confirmed the internal reliability and test-retest reliability of the CMEM. The discriminant validity of the measure was supported by the child molesters' demonstrated relative deficiency in empathy toward an unknown offender's victim of sexual abuse. However, the child molesters displayed equal empathy toward the accident victim relative to nonoffenders. Additionally, the child molesters displayed significantly less empathy toward their own victims than toward the general sexual abuse victim. The results are discussed in terms of their theoretical and practical implications.

Cycle of Blame or Just World

The conviction rate for sexual assault is persistently low in the United States. We propose a cycle-of-blame framework to highlight the possibility that the same rape myths that limit convictions are in turn strengthened by not-guilty verdicts. Participants read a summary of a rape trial. In different conditions, they were told that the jury's verdict was guilty or not guilty. In a No-Verdict condition, participants merely read the summary. All 96 participants subsequently responded to questionnaires measuring rape-myth acceptance and victim empathy. Gender affected both the myth and empathy measures, with women accepting fewer myths than men and exhibiting more empathy for the victim. Gender and Condition interacted such that men showed greater acceptance of rape myths and less empathy after a not-guilty versus a guilty verdict. Women evidenced consistently high empathy across conditions and greater myth acceptance after a guilty verdict. Although the cycle-of-blame principle is consistent with the performance of men, women's data require a different interpretation, which we base on just-world theory.

Consideration of moral intensity in ethicality judgements: Its relationship with whistle-blowing and need-for-cognition

Within the theoretical framework of the moral intensity model of ethical decision making (Jones, 1991), two studies ascertained the contention that ethicality judgements are contingent upon the perceived intensity of the moral issue. In addition, Study 1 extended the validity of the moral intensity notion to whistle-blowing behaviour; Study 2 addressed the effect of the individual difference variable, need-for-cognition, on differential utilization of intensity dimensions in the ethical decision process. A scenario approach was used in both studies. Results have provided convergent support for the issue-contingency nature of ethical decisions. Study 1 also showed that felt empathy for potential victims predicted the likelihood of whistle-blowing behaviour, and that the perceived overall ethicality of a wrongdoing predicted felt empathy when potential victims are psychologically and physically close. Results of Study 2 further suggested a greater utilization of issue-relevant information by high need-for-cognition individuals in ethical decision making.

Group treatment for prepubescent boys with sexually aggressive behavior: Clinical considerations and proposed treatment techniques

Descriptive and treatment outcome studies regarding sexually aggressive prepubescent boys are lacking. Preliminary data, however, are available from five studies on this difficult-to-treat population. This article has multiple goals: 1) to summarize descriptive and treatment outcome data of problematic sexual behavior in children; 2) to describe general considerations regarding treatment for sexually aggressive prepubescent male children; 3) to address two traditional clinical goals (e.g., eliminating perpetration behavior and enhancing victim empathy) for treating sexual aggression; and 4) to broaden the concept of empathy as a treatment goal. In addition, useful activities are described and available resources are referenced for practitioner use.

Embedding Psychodrama in a Wilderness Group Program for Adolescent Sex Offenders

ABSTRACT This paper describes the technique of psychodrama to facilitate victim empathy with adolescent sexual offenders. Other psychodramatic methods of role training sociodrama, mirroring and modeling and their applications to work with adolescent sexual offenders is also discussed. The history of the technique's implementation in a community based treatment programme is outlined, along with its application within an Outdoor Wilderness Group therapy programme. Other considerations relating to clients for whom the technique may not be appropriate are also discussed.

Increasing the Self-Esteem of Child Molesters

Thirty-two child molesters received self-esteem enhancement procedures as part of an overall treatment program. The effects of the self-esteem procedures were evahiated in terms of changes on the Social Self-esteem Inventory. It was found that the procedures significantly enhanced self-esteem. These changes were significantly related to reductions in loneliness and increases in intimacy but were unrelated to improvements in victim empathy despite the fact that victim empathy and self-esteem scores were significantly correlated at pretreatment. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for theory and treatment.

Increasing the self-esteem of child molesters

Thirty-two child molesters received self-esteem enhancement procedures as part of an overall treatment program. The effects of the self-esteem procedures were evaluated in terms of changes on the Social Self-esteem Inventory. It was found that the procedures significantly enhanced self-esteem. These changes were significantly related to reductions in loneliness and increases in intimacy but were unrelated to improvements in victim empathy despite the fact that victim empathy and self-esteem scores were significantly correlated at pretreatment. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for theory and treatment.

Empathy and the recognition of abuse

A lack of empathy is commonly seen as one of the central features of sexual aggression but there is little evidence to justify this assumption. Indeed a recent study, Beckett, Beech, Fisher & Fordham (1994), indicated that convicted child molesters showed more emotional empathy, but less cognitive empathy than a non‐offender comparison group. The present study was designed to test the proposition that this finding is not an anomaly but part of a more general trend for empathic emotion to disrupt the learning of accurate perspective taking. Subjects were assessed for levels of cognitive and affective empathy and then their ability to recognize the abusive quality of sexual aggression was evaluated. Paralleling the Beckett et al. finding the present results indicated that recognition of abuse is enhanced by appropriate cognitive skills and habits but disrupted by empathic emotional arousal. The implications of these results for programmes aimed at enhancing victim empathy are discussed.

The enhancement of victim empathy among incarcerated child molesters

A treatment component aimed at enhancing empathy among child molesters is described and evaluated using a victim‐specific measure of empathy. Twenty‐nine non‐familial child molesters were assessed prior to and immediately after this treatment component. The results revealed a significant improvement in the offenders' scores on the measure of their empathy toward their own victims and in their reports of their own feelings of distress concerning victims of child abuse in general.

Treating Sexual Offenders Who Deny Their Guilt: A Pilot Study

A brief structured module combining elements of relapse prevention and victim empathy training with paradoxical interventions and positive reinforcement was evaluated for its effectiveness in modifying the denial of sexual offenders. Early data suggested that this procedure was effective in modifying the denial of approximately 50% of the sample and thus helped to prepare them for entry into a sexual offender treatment program. The sample consisted of offenders who were judged unamenable to treatment due to total denial of their offenses.

Treating sexual offenders who deny their guilt: A pilot study

A brief structured module combining elements of relapse prevention and victim empathy training with paradoxical interventions and positive reinforcement was evaluated for its effectiveness in modifying the denial of sexual offenders. Early data suggested that this procedure was effective in modifying the denial of approximately 50% of the sample and thus helped to prepare them for entry into a sexual offender treatment program. The sample consisted of offenders who were judged unamenable to treatment due to total denial of their offenses.

Assessing perspective-taking among sexual offenders, nonsexual criminals, and nonoffenders

Lack of victim empathy is often cited as a factor in sexual offending. Empathy is a complex reaction that requires both perspective-taking skills and sympathetic feelings. Some treatment programs for sexual offenders provide victim empathy training based on the assumption that increased awarencess of victim suffering should inhibit further offenses. Perspective-taking deficits, however, may be irrelevant to certain offenders who are indifferent or even attracted to the suffering of their victims. In the present study a diverse group of sexual offenders and comparison subjects were administered two new measures of perspective-taking ability. The sexual offenders, in general, showed greater deficits than did the comparison subjects. As expected, deficits were most noticeable in those offenders who were not known to have used overt force and those who were not intoxicated during the commission of their offenses. The present study supports the utility of using perspective-taking measures with sexual offenders.

Assessing Perspective-Taking Among Sexual Offenders, Nonsexual Criminals, and Nonoffenders

Lack of victim empathy is often cited as a factor in sexual offending. Empathy is a complex reaction that requires both perspective-taking skills and sympathetic feelings. Some treatment programs for sexual offenders provide victim empathy training based on the assumption that increased awareness of victim suffering should inhibit further offenses. Perspective-taking deficits, however, may be irrelevant to certain offenders who are indifferent or even attracted to the suffering of their victims. In the present study a diverse group of sexual offenders and comparison subjects were administered two new measures of perspective-taking ability. The sexual offenders, in general, showed greater deficits than did the comparison subjects. As expected, deficits were most noticeable in those offenders who were not known to have used overt force and those who were not intoxicated during the commission of their offenses. The present study supports the utility of using perspective-taking measures with sexual offenders.