Very High Cycle Fatigue Research Articles

An investigation into the effects of cyclic strain rate on the high cycle and very high cycle fatigue behaviors of wrought and additively manufactured Inconel 718

Additive Manufacturing (AM) has increasingly been used to fabricate parts in aerospace applications, which may require service lives beyond ten-million cycles due to the imposed high loading frequencies. Understanding the very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) behavior of these additive manufactured (AM) parts is an important step towards their design and qualification processes. This study focuses on the high cycle fatigue (HCF) and VHCF behaviors of both wrought and laser beam-powder bed fusion (LB-PBF) fabricated Inconel 718 in machined/polished surface condition, emphasizing on the influence of test frequency (i.e., cyclic strain rate). Uniaxial, fully-reversed force- and stress-controlled fatigue tests were conducted utilizing a servo-hydraulic and an ultrasonic test system operating at 5 Hz and 20 kHz, respectively, on wrought as well as LB-PBF vertically and diagonally built specimens. Fatigue cracks in the majority of the specimens were found to initiate from intra-granular slip bands near or at the surface, which gives rise to strong anisotropy in fatigue resistance in LB-PBF specimens due to the presence of columnar grains along the build directions. Longer fatigue lives were obtained at 20 kHz, which was ascribed to possibly lower-than-intended stresses applied in the ultrasonic tests. The corrected stress-life fatigue data at 20 kHz were found to converge to the one obtained from conventional testing at 5 Hz, implying no effect of cyclic strain rate on the fatigue behavior of Inconel 718 regardless of the fabrication process. The findings of this work confirm the use of ultrasonic fatigue testing to expedite generation of AM materials data to keep up with the current demand; however, the applied stress may need to be corrected.

Subsurface faceted cracking behavior of selective laser melting Ni-based superalloy under very high cycle fatigue

The structure-property of a Ni-based superalloy fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM) was investigated under very high cycle fatigue (VHCF), and the subsurface cracking with fisheye pattern becomes a remarkable failure mode. Due to the presence of subsurface failure, the descending S–N curve property is represented. Based on 2D & 3D microscopic observation, a rough region with facets and inclusions, named as “multi-inclusion assisted facetted cracking zone (MAFCZ)”, is present within the fisheye. By combining electron backscatter diffraction analysis, the subsurface failure is related to grain size & orientation, microtexture and crystal defects. The crack is nucleated from the large grain slip with the highest Schmid factor under the assistance of the inclusions. The rough surface morphology with crack deflection reveals ultra-slow crack growth behavior within MAFCZ. Combined with failure modeling and fracture mechanics analysis, the subsurface failure mechanisms of SLM Ni-based superalloy under the VHCF are elucidated.

Effect of Turning on the Surface Integrity and Fatigue Life of a TC11 Alloy in Very High Cycle Fatigue Regime

In this work, the effect of a turning process on fatigue performance of a Ti-6.5Al-3.5Mo-1.5Zr-0.3Si (TC11) titanium alloy is studied in the high cycle fatigue (HCF) and very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) regimes. For this purpose, the surface characteristics including surface morphology, surface roughness and residual stress were investigated. Moreover, axial fatigue tests were conducted with an ultrasonic fatigue testing system working at a frequency of 20 kHz. The results show that the turning process deteriorated the fatigue properties in both HCF and VHCF regimes. The fatigue strength at 1 × 108 cycles of turned samples is approximately 6% lower than that of electropolished ones. Fracture surface observations indicate that turning marks play a crucial role in the fatigue damage process, especially in the crack initiation stage. It was observed that the crack of all the turned samples originated from turning marks. In addition, the compressive residual stress induced by the turning process played a more effective role in resisting crack propagation in the VHCF regime than in the HCF regime.

Comparison of Very High Cycle Fatigue Properties of 18CrNiMo7-6 Steel after Carburizing and Pseudo-carburizing

The very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) properties of case hardening steel 18CrNiMo7-6 after carburizing and pseudo-carburizing have been investigated by means of ultrasonic fatigue tests. Results showed that the pseudo-carburized specimens with the hardness of 442 HV did not show VHCF fracture, and fatigue fracture did not occur even after 109 cycles when the applied stress amplitude was lower than the high cycle fatigue limit of 650 MPa obtained at 107 cycles. When carburized thoroughly with the hardness of 700 HV, the experimental steel showed VHCF phenomenon, and it might fracture even at nearly 109 cycles when the stress amplitude was about 600 MPa. Observations of the fracture surfaces of the fatigue specimens showed that after carburizing, the fatigue crack initiation sites changed from martensite matrix to nonmetallic inclusions, forming granular bright facet (GBF) and fish-eye before final abrupt fracture. The stress intensity factor at GBF area, which was calculated to be 3.5 MPa m1/2, could be used as a critical value for VHCF fracture for the carburized specimens of the experimental steel. The VHCF fracture of the carburized specimens of the experimental steel could be related to the high hardness and large amount of retained austenite as a result of carburizing.

Bending Fatigue Behavior of 316L Stainless Steel up to Very High Cycle Fatigue Regime.

Effect of microstructure on the crack initiation and early propagation mechanism in the very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) regime was studied in 316L stainless steel (316L SS) by atomic force microscope (AFM) and electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD). The results show that small fatigue cracks initiate from the slip band near the grain boundaries (GBs) or the twin boundaries (TBs). Early crack propagation along or cross the slip band is strongly influenced by the local microstructure such as grain size, orientation, and boundary. Besides, the gathered slip bands (SBs) are presented side by side with the damage grains of the run-out specimen. Finally, it is found that dislocations can either pass through the TBs, or be arrested at the TBs.

Crack initiation behavior and fatigue performance up to very-high-cycle regime of AlSi10Mg fabricated by selective laser melting with two powder sizes

The high-cycle and very-high-cycle fatigue (VHCF) behavior of AlSi10Mg specimens manufactured by selective laser melting with different printing powder sizes was investigated. The specimens with 20 μm powder size contained more defects than those with 50 μm powder size, and the latter have a higher fatigue property than the former. Unmelted powders were detected as the main source of crack initiation. The specimens printed with 50 μm powder size are more likely to feature subsurface crack initiation in the VHCF regime. Five different types of crack initiation modes were identified, and the fatigue strength was assessed by statistical model.

Characterization of Intrinsic ΔKth to Support Crack Growth Estimates under Spectrum Loading in the HCF/VHCF Domain

Abstract Closure-free intrinsic threshold stress intensity, ΔKth,i, can vary significantly depending on near-tip residual stress, σ*. σ* is a computed parameter that is sensitive to hysteretic stress–strain crack-tip response to applied load history. The test procedure developed in earlier work to characterize ΔKth,i as a function of σ* was optimized and validated on three different materials, demonstrating both consistent estimates of ΔKth,i as well as its unique relationship with σ*. A detailed description of the improved test procedure is provided to enable implementation on a target test system. Establishment of the ΔKth,i versus σ* relationship permits improved estimates of extended duration spectrum load fatigue crack growth associated with high cycle fatigue (HCF) and very high cycle fatigue (VHCF). The test procedure to characterize this relationship merits adoption as a standard test practice given the promise of bridging a longstanding gap between laboratory test techniques and requirements of residual crack growth life estimates under long-duration spectrum loading.

Influence of processing parameters of selective laser melting on high‐cycle and very‐high‐cycle fatigue behaviour of Ti‐6Al‐4V

AbstractOrthogonal experiment design together with the analysis of variance was used to examine the processing parameters (laser power, scan speed, layer thickness and hatch spacing) of selective laser melting (SLM) for superior properties of SLM parts, in which nine groups of specimens of Ti‐6Al‐4V were fabricated. The results clarify that the influence sequence of individual parameter on the porosity is laser power > hatch spacing > layer thickness > scan speed. Ultrasonic fatigue tests (20 kHz) were conducted for the SLMed specimens in high‐cycle fatigue (HCF) and very‐high‐cycle fatigue (VHCF) regimes. The S‐N data show that the fatigue strength is greatly affected by the porosity: the group with the smallest porosity percentage having the highest fatigue strength in HCF and VHCF regimes. Then, the tests on the validation group were performed to verify the optimal combination of SLM processing parameters. Moreover, the observations by scanning electron microscopy revealed that fatigue cracks initiate at lack‐of‐fusion defects in the cases of surface and internal crack initiation.

Effect of shot peening on very high cycle fatigue of 2024-T351 aluminium alloy

To investigate the influence of shot peening (SP) on very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) performance of 2024-T351, the specimens with three surface conditions were performed under ultrasonic fatigue tests: mechanicallypolished without peening (NP), ceramic shot peening (SP1), steel and glass mixed shot peening (SP2). The roughness, microhardness, residual stress, fractography measurement and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were applied before fatigue test to characterize the effective layer induced by the peening treatment. For the failed specimens, the fracture surface were analysed using SEM to study the mechanisms of fatigue crack propagation. In addition, the fatigue life curve in ultra-high cycle region continuously decreased in the three series of specimens. However, the experimental results revealed that fatigue strength improvement resulting from shot peening treatment was negligible in very high cycle regime. Furthermore, the stress intensity factor for the surface crack initiation (SCI) and interior crack initiation (ICI) was discussed based on quantitative analysis on the fracture surface. The average values of ΔKfish-eye for NP, SP1 and SP2 specimens are about 2.22, 1.48 and 1.61 MPa · m1/2, respectively.

Comparison of the damage evolution in glass fiber-reinforced polyurethane and epoxy in the HCF and VHCF regimes investigated by intermittent in situ X-ray computed tomography

The aim of this work is the comparative characterization of the fatigue and damage behaviors of GFR-polyurethane and GFR-epoxy with application-relevant quasi-isotropic layer setup in the high cycle and very-high cycle fatigue regimes. Therefore, a high-frequency test method based on a resonant testing system (1 kHz) has been further developed and assessed with special consideration of self-heating. In intermittent test procedures, the damage state has been explored by in situ X-ray computed tomography analysis after certain numbers of cycles. It was shown that the overall damage state in the VHCF regime is reduced by a factor of three compared to the HCF regime and accompanied by delayed initiation and propagation of delamination. The latter was proven to be the main reason for a decreased inclination of the S/N-curve in the VHCF regime by 50-60%.

Variable amplitude very high cycle fatigue of 17-4PH steel with a stepwise S-N curve

High and very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) tests were performed with 17-4PH stainless steel under constant amplitude (CA) and variable amplitude (VA) loading at load ratios of −1 and 0.05. Stepwise (duplex) S-N curves were determined with failure from surface inclusions above the transition stress amplitude, σtr, and from the interior below σtr. Similar σtr for CA and VA loading were found. VA failure occurred at Miner damage sums between 0.1 and 0.9 (surface failure) and 0.2 and 2.2 (internal failure). Omission of stress amplitudes less than 60% of the maximum amplitude is allowable for VA studies in the VHCF regime.

Effects of inclusion size and stress ratio on the very-high-cycle fatigue behavior of pearlitic steel

The effects of inclusion size and stress ratio (R) on the very-high-cycle fatigue (VHCF) behavior of pearlitic steel were experimentally assessed. TheS–Ncurve under rotating bending loading exhibited a horizontal asymptote shape and a clear fatigue limit. In contrast, the S–Ncurve under ultrasonic axial loading exhibited a continuously descending shape, and the fatigue limit disappeared at a fatigue life of 107 cycles. The fine granular area (FGA) within nanograins formed in the crack initiation region only for the samples subjected to VHCF at R = −1. All instances of interior crack initiation were caused by the MnS inclusions.

Effect of Severe Shot Peening on the Very-High Cycle Notch Fatigue of an AW 7075 Alloy

The severe shot peening process was applied to the notched specimens from an AW 7075 alloy with the aim to improve fatigue endurance in the very-high cycle fatigue region. To reveal the stress state in the notch vicinity, finite element analysis was performed, simulating the conditions of the used 20 kHz ultrasonic fatigue loading. Modified surface characteristics by the severe shot peening process were analyzed in terms of residual stress distribution measured by X-ray diffraction methods and near-surface microstructural observations by scanning electron microscopy. The applied severe shot peening increased the fatigue limit by 11%; however, the positive effect was recorded only for the loading amplitudes corresponding to the fatigue lifetimes in the range 107–109 cycles. At higher loading amplitudes, the fatigue properties tended to decrease, most likely due to accelerated fatigue crack initiation on the surface damage features created by the peening process and also by rapid residual stress relaxation.

Recent Advances in Very High Cycle Fatigue Behavior of Metals and Alloys—A Review

We reviewed the research and developments in the field of fatigue failure, focusing on very-high cycle fatigue (VHCF) of metals, alloys, and steels. We also discussed ultrasonic fatigue testing, historical relevance, major testing principles, and equipment. The VHCF behavior of Al, Mg, Ni, Ti, and various types of steels were analyzed. Furthermore, we highlighted the major defects, crack initiation sites, fatigue models, and simulation studies to understand the crack development in VHCF regimes. Finally, we reviewed the details regarding various issues and challenges in the field of VHCF for engineering metals and identified future directions in this area.

Microcrack initiation mechanism of a duplex stainless steel under very high cycle fatigue loading condition: The significance of load partitioning and micro residual stresses

Investigation on the cyclic response of metallic materials in very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) is a challenging problem, which hinders the development of fatigue theories. To overcome this difficulty, we initially applied several sensible techniques, e.g., High-energy X-ray diffraction (HEXRD), confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM), nanoindentation and transmission electron microscope (TEM) to investigate the cyclic response of a duplex stainless steel (DSS) in the VHCF regime. In-situ XRD and in-situ digital image correlation (DIC) experiments were subsequently performed at observed changing stages, intending to explore the underlying mechanism of microcrack initiation. The first-hand results obtained revealed that the austenite phase exhibits cyclic softening-hardening-softening behavior during the VHCF process. The in-situ investigations performed at the cyclic softening and hardening stages showed a load partitioning and a load transfer between the two phases, implying the cyclic response can significantly affect the distribution of the applied load. Residual strain obtained by DIC technique after unloading exhibited strong variations at phase boundaries, suggesting micro residual stresses have developed pronouncedly. Based on all the experimental findings, a unified crack initiation mechanism for the investigated DSS during VHCF loading was proposed.

Ultrasonic fatigue testing of cast steel G42CrMo4 at elevated temperatures

AbstractThe fatigue life of cast steel G42CrMo4 in two different heat treatment conditions was investigated at room temperature (RT), 473 K and 773 K up to the range of very high cycle fatigue (VHCF), that is, 109 cycles. The fatigue life is determined by casting defects, the hardness of the steel matrix and by temperature. Fatigue life data were discussed in correlation with crack‐initiating defects analysed on fracture surfaces. The SN curves obtained at RT and at 473 K show a large scatter. However, the SN curve at 773 K exhibits a larger slope parameter and a significantly reduced scatter. It is shown that the fatigue behaviour of the cast steel G42CrMo4 changes from 473 to 773 K in the range of VHCF. The fatigue lives of the specimens tested at 773 K were described with a crack growth model.

The mechanism of internal fatigue-crack initiation and early growth in a titanium alloy with lamellar and equiaxed microstructure

Traditionally, equiaxed α grains rather than lamellar microstructure (LM) domains in titanium alloys are regarded as potential internal crack origins in high-cycle fatigue (HCF) and very-high-cycle fatigue (VHCF) regimes. Here, we found that the fatigue crack is prone to initiate from a large LM domain in a titanium alloy with the composition of LM and equiaxed microstructure (EM) of fine α grains. Then, the mechanisms of internal crack initiation and early growth for the cases of HCF and VHCF under stress ratio R = −1, 0.1 and 0.5 were addressed and a mechanism chart was constructed to illustrate the internal cracking behavior, especially showing that the numerous cyclic pressing process dominates the related microstructure evolution with grain size refinement and nanograin formation underneath the fracture surfaces in the region of crack initiation and early growth.

Very High Cycle Fatigue Behavior of Additively Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel.

The present paper is focused on an experimental study of the damage-to-failure mechanism of additively manufactured 316L stainless steel specimens subjected to very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) loading. Ultrasonic axial tension-compression tests were carried out on specimens for up to 109 cycles, and fracture surface analysis was performed. A fine granular area (FGA) surrounding internal defects was observed and formed a “fish-eye” fracture type. Nonmetallic inclusions and the lack of fusion within the fracture surfaces that were observed with SEM were assumed to be sources of damage initiation and growth of the FGAs. The characteristic diameter of the FGAs was ≈500 μm on the fracture surface and were induced by nonmetallic inclusions; this characteristic diameter was the same as that for the fracture surface induced by a lack of fusion. Fracture surfaces corresponding to the high cycle fatigue (HCF) regime were discussed as well to emphasize damage features related to the VHCF regime.

Microcrack Initiation Mechanism of a Duplex Stainless Steel Under Very High Cycle Fatigue Loading Condition: The Significance of Load Partitioning and Micro Residual Stresses

Investigation on the cyclic response of metallic materials in very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) is a challenging problem, which hinders the development of fatigue theories. To overcome this difficulty, we initially applied several sensible techniques, e.g., High-energy X-ray diffraction (HEXRD), confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM), nanoindentation and transmission electron microscope (TEM) to investigate the cyclic response of a duplex stainless steel (DSS) in the VHCF regime. In-situ XRD and in-situ digital image correlation (DIC) experiments were subsequently performed at observed changing stages, intending to explore the underlying mechanism of microcrack initiation. The first-hand results obtained revealed that the austenite phase exhibits cyclic softening-hardening-softening behavior during the VHCF process. The in-situ investigations performed at the cyclic softening and hardening stages showed a load partitioning and a load transfer between the two phases, implying the cyclic response can significantly affect the distribution of the applied load. Residual strain obtained by the DIC technique after unloading exhibited strong variations at phase boundaries, suggesting micro residual stresses have developed pronouncedly. Based on all the experimental findings, a unified crack initiation mechanism for the investigated DSS during VHCF loading was proposed.

Fatigue life prediction of TC17 titanium alloy based on micro scratch

Micro scratch with depth and width of micron expresses a significant influence on fatigue life. However, little literature is available on modelling the effect of micro scratch on the fatigue life of TC17 titanium alloy. In this paper, the geometric characteristics of micro scratch, especially depth and width, were obsevered and measured. Then, fatigue experiment was conducted to obtain the corresponding fatigue test data. Result shows the presence of micro scratches dramatically reduced the fatigue life from very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) to the high cycle fatigue (HCF) regime. According to the geometrical characteristics of micro scratch, two principles of no obvious influence of scratch direction and length on fatigue life was proposed based on Murakami theory. A new parameter areaΔ is proposed to describe fatigue damage quantitatively caused by micro scratches, which is defined as the square root of triangle area of scratch section. An HCF life model of TC17 with the consideration of micro scratches is established by the combined application of areaΔ and Paris formula. The validity of the model is confirmed by a good agreement between predicted and experimental results.