Very High Cycle Fatigue Failure Research Articles

Very high cycle fatigue of fiber‐reinforced polymer composites: Uniaxial ultrasonic fatigue

AbstractThis review explores uniaxial ultrasonic fatigue (USF) testing as a common and dependable method for quantifying the extended fatigue life of fiber‐reinforced polymer (FRP) composites. The objective is to explain the complexities governing the fatigue life behavior of FRPs, particularly in the realm of very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) where the number of loading cycles exceeds 107. To this end, this review encompasses the analysis of VHCF behavior, including the derivation and interpretation of stress–life (S–N) data, the evaluation of various fatigue damage mechanisms (i.e., controlling mechanisms of crack initiation and propagation) exhibited in FRP composites, and a thorough investigation of the frequency‐dependent effects on fatigue responses. Furthermore, this review tries to analyze the microscopic intricacies intrinsic to the VHCF failure of FRP composites, encompassing aspects such as fiber‐matrix de‐bonding, matrix cracking, and delamination, unveiling their modes and effects in a detailed manner. This review also underscores the pivotal integration of simulations, machine learning, and modeling techniques, emphasizing their crucial role in explaining both macroscopic and microscopic interactions governing the VHCF of FRPs.

Microstructure Study on Very High Cycle Fatigue of an Additively Manufactured Aluminium Alloy via Advanced Characterization Methods

The engineering application of additively manufactured (AM) metallic materials is quite limited by their fatigue behaviors, which are very inconsistent with that of conventionally wrought or cast ones. Here, based on advanced material characterization techniques, such as focused ion beam (FIB), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the microstructures underneath fracture surfaces were thoroughly investigated in an AM aluminum (AlSi10Mg) alloy with horizontal and vertical building orientation enduring very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) loading under the stress ratios R = −1, 0, and 0.5. Two VHCF failure specimens A and B were representatively selected to further examine SEM and TEM sample preparation via FIB milling. Specimen A was horizontally printed and failed at R = −1; specimen B was vertically printed and failed at R = 0. TEM samples A1 and B1 were lifted from locations near the crack initiation sites on the fracture surfaces of specimens A and B; The locations of TEM samples A2 and B2 kept away from the crack origin sites but still within the “fish-eye” region of crack steady growth. TEM observations show that there was no characteristic microstructure induced by VHCF in different oriented specimens and under various R values.

Very High Cycle Fatigue of Welds: A Review

The design life of welded structures and components extends into the very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) regime across various applications. However, the availability of data on the fatigue behaviour of welded joints in the VHCF regime is limited, particularly when compared to the low and high cycle fatigue regimes. The development of ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment has accelerated fatigue testing and allowed for the VHCF properties of welds to be investigated in a feasible timeframe. In the present review, the emerging research concerning the VHCF behaviour of welds of various steels and non-ferrous alloys are individually explored. Overall, it is observed that welded joints have significantly lower fatigue strength than the base metal in the VHCF regime and that welding defects have a considerable influence on fatigue strength. Through the discussion of the relevant literature, important findings concerning the effects of specimen geometry and fatigue improvement methods are underlined. Furthermore, the guidance provided within design standards is compared, and some examples of VHCF failures of in-service components are highlighted. Finally, perspectives on future directions of investigation are put forward with the aim of encouraging further research in the field of VHCF of welds.

Wire arc additive manufactured AWS ER100S-G steel: Very high cycle fatigue characterization

This paper presents a comprehensive study on the very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) characterization of a wire arc additive manufactured (WAAM) AWS ER100S-G steel. The demand for high-performance materials with superior fatigue properties has grown exponentially. However, the VHCF behavior of large-format WAAM’d structures remains relatively unexplored. In this study, a series of VHCF tests were conducted under fully reversed cyclic loading conditions to investigate the extended fatigue life (performance) of the WAAM ER100S-G steel. The VHCF properties, relative to conventional fatigue employing a servohydraulic testing system, of the WAAM ER100S-G steel were evaluated by analyzing the stress-life (S-N) curves, fatigue crack initiation, and propagation behavior, in a statistical framework, and the fracture surfaces. The results revealed the controlling mechanisms of VHCF failure of the WAAM ER100S-G steel and the fatigue response of the material beyond the conventional fatigue limit of 107 cycles. The findings provide valuable insights into the influence of WAAM-induced defects/microstructure on the extended fatigue performance of WAAM ER100S-G steel, which can aid in optimizing fatigue and durability design guidelines for additive manufacturing applications in high-cycle and very high-cycle fatigue domains.

Effect of basal texture on small crack behavior of magnesium alloy in very high cycle fatigue regime

AbstractThe behavior of small cracks in magnesium alloy is key to understanding very high cycle fatigue (VHCF), which is influenced by microstructure and deformation mechanism. This study explores how basal texture affects VHCF failure mechanisms in extruded magnesium alloys. Findings reveal that faceted and rough morphologies characterize fracture surfaces during crack initiation and early propagation, respectively. Basal texturing inhibits basal slipping during faceted‐like crack initiation while compression twinning dominates deformation during early propagation, contributing to rough zones. Stress intensity factor and plastic zone size analysis indicates significant influence of basal texture on VHCF failure mechanisms but with limited effect on stable propagation.

Very high cycle fatigue of high carbon chromium bearing steel at high compressive mean stresses

Very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) of high carbon chromium bearing steel 100Cr6 (SAE52100; JISSUJ2) is investigated with ultrasonic fatigue testing for compressive mean stresses with minimum stresses σmin at compressive yield stress σCY, for σmin = 0.59σCY, and for load ratio R = −1. Fatigue limits are found for σmin = σCY and for σmin = 0.59σCY, whereas no fatigue limit below 109 cycles exists at R = −1. Cracks leading to VHCF failures exclusively start at interior inclusions. Considering inclusions as cracks, the maximum stress intensity factor of a load cycle being below the effective threshold stress intensity factor determines the fatigue limit.

Mechanism of artificial surface defect induced cracking for very high cycle fatigue of Ti alloys

In-situ observation of crack growth and electron backscatter diffraction observation of microstructure around artificial surface defect and at mated crack surfaces are conducted for very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) of TC17 alloy. The artificial surface defect induced VHCF failure presents no slow process of crack initiation and early growth accompanied with nanograin formation commonly observed for internal cracking induced VHCF. It is attributed to the synergistic effect of cyclic stress with time dependent process (e.g. the influence of moisture, action of hydrogen, etc.). The nanograins and deformation twins are also observed in some α grains at or near crack surfaces.

Very high cycle fatigue durability of an additively manufactured single-crystal Ni-based superalloy

A single crystalline (SX) nickel-based superalloy additively manufactured (AM) by electron beam-based powder bed fusion (PBF-E) was investigated under very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) at 1,000 °C in fully reversed conditions (R ε = −1). Specimens processed using a classical Bridgman solidification route and the impact of a hot isostatic pressing (HIP) treatment were also considered. It is shown that the fatigue lifetime of the AM specimens is higher or in the same range of the Bridgman processed ones with the same chemical composition. All defect-free AM samples fail by surface initiation with very long VHCF lives. In the absence of metallurgical defects such as grain boundaries or pores, the superalloy chemical stability against oxidation governs VHCF failure. • Additively manufactured and Bridgman solidified CMSX-4 superalloy have comparable VHCF life under high temperature. • The superalloy chemistry controls the fatigue life of defect-free specimens. • Defect-free specimens fails by surface crack initiation. • The fatigue limit is controlled by the superalloy oxidation resistance at temperature of 1,000 °C.

Effects of local microstructure on crack initiation in super martensitic stainless steel under very-high-cycle fatigue

Super martensitic stainless steel is known for its outstanding mechanical properties, which lead to its widely application in structural component bearing cyclic loadings. This study investigates the effect of local microstructure on the crack initiation behavior of a super martensitic stainless steel in the very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) regime. Results show that the non-inclusion-induced crack initiation is the dominating pattern of VHCF failure. Fatigue cracks initiate from the boundaries of the martensite lath due to the mode II cracking process, resulting in the formation of a slip area located at the core of the fine granular area (FGA). The size and the orientation of the martensite lath determine the morphology of the slip area but exert limited influence on the formation of the FGA at the fracture surface. These results may effectively improve the service safety and reliability of super martensitic stainless steel.

Micro-mechanism associated with very high cycle fatigue crack initiation of advanced DQ&P processed steel

In the present study, very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) characteristics and properties of a direct quenched and partitioned (DQ&P) medium carbon (0.4 wt.% C) steel having ultrahigh-strength (UTS > 2 GPa) was investigated using an ultrasonic-fatigue testing technique (∼19 kHz frequency) up to ∼1010 cycles at the load ratio (R) of −1 (fully reversed tension-compression). The occurrence of crack initiation in the VHCF regime was observed at interior non-metallic inclusions. The microstructural changes following VHCF failure underneath the fracture surfaces near the crack initiation sites were further investigated through transmission electron microscopy. Formation of a clear nanograined subsurface layer adjacent to the crack initiating site at the interior inclusion was noticeably evident. The variation of average grain size (60 − 140 nm) and thickness (300 − 1200 nm) of nanograined layers at different number of cycles to failure were measured in detail. Apparently, localized plastic deformation caused the fragmentation of martensitic laths and hence, the formation of aforesaid ultrafine-grained layers in the microstructures.

Influence of small defects and nonmetallic inclusions on the high and very high cycle fatigue strength of an ultrahigh‐strength steel

AbstractThe high and very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) properties of ultrahigh‐strength Ck45M steel processed by thermomechanical rolling integrated direct quenching were investigated. S–N tests with smooth and small drilled holes containing specimens as well as near‐threshold fatigue crack growth measurements were performed up to 2 × 1010 cycles using ultrasonic‐fatigue testing technique. The fatigue strength of smooth specimens is mainly determined by the size of nonmetallic inclusions. For surface defects larger than 80 μm, the fatigue limit can be correlated with a constant threshold‐stress intensity factor. The ‐parameter model adequately predicts the fatigue limit for internal defects and for surface defects with sizes between 30 and 80 μm. VHCF failures from smaller surface defects occur at stress amplitudes below the predicted fatigue limit. The long‐crack threshold in ambient air is close to the effective threshold stress intensity factor. In optically dark areas at interior inclusions, cracks grow at mean propagation rates of 10−15 m/cycles.

Very high cycle fatigue life and critical defect size: Modeling of statistical size effects

AbstractA novel statistical approach to model size effects in very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) is proposed in the paper. The statistical distributions of the VHCF life and of the size of the defect leading to VHCF failure (critical defect) are identified in the paper through the weakest‐link principle. The statistical distributions are able to account for the stress gradients that are present in a loaded material volume. An efficient procedure for estimating the parameters involved in the statistical distributions is also shown. The proposed statistical models are finally validated through experimental data taken from the literature. The experimental validation proves the fitting capability of the proposed models that outperform the traditional models based on the 90% risk‐volume.

Fatigue Strength and Fracture Mechanisms in the Very‐High‐Cycle‐Fatigue Regime of Automotive Steels

Very‐high‐cycle‐fatigue (VHCF) strength properties are of interest to several technical applications assessed globally at different laboratories with long‐life fatigue testing capabilities. Also, VHCF failure mechanisms are a scientific topic with remaining open research questions. Herein, three automotive bar grade steels are studied with respect to VHCF strength and initiation mechanisms. A microalloyed ferritic–pearlitic steel (38MnSiV5, 870 MPa tensile strength), a quenched and tempered martensitic steel (50CrV4, 1410 MPa tensile strength), and a carburizing steel (16MnCr5, 1180 MPa core structure tensile strength) are studied to reveal characteristics regarding initiation and VHCF failure mechanisms. A 20 kHz ultrasonic fatigue testing instrument is used to obtain fatigue lives up to and above 109 load cycles in uniaxial loading. Hour‐glass specimens, smooth or notched, are tested at R = −1 and R = 0.1. Fatigue strength and stress life (SN)‐diagram data are achieved, and crack initiation and growth mechanisms are studied using primarily field‐emission gun–scanning electron microscopy (FEG–SEM). Fatigue strengths are explained by a modified life‐dependent Murakami‐expression, the Haigh diagram, and notch sensitivity. Interior and surface crack initiations by surface defects, triple points, and inclusions are found. The fine granular area (FGA) to fish‐eye crack growth transition conditions are explored and schematic descriptions are given.

Ultrasonic VHCF Tests on Very Large Specimens with Risk-Volume Up to 5000 mm3

The research on the size-effects in Very-High-Cycle Fatigue (VHCF) has recently drawn the attention of several scholars. The fatigue cracks in VHCF originate from the largest defect present within the loaded material volume (risk-volume) and the larger the risk-volume, the larger the probability of critical defects affecting the VHCF response (size-effect). Many models have been proposed in the literature to deal with size-effects in VHCF. However, the proposed models cannot be validated on full-scale components, since VHCF tests are typically carried out with ultrasonic fatigue testing machines. The authors have proposed a specimen geometry, the so-called Gaussian specimens, to enlarge as much as possible the risk-volume in ultrasonic VHCF tests. In this study, fully reversed tension–compression ultrasonic VHCF tests up to 109 cycles were carried out on AISI H13 steel Gaussian specimens with a risk-volume of 5000 mm3, two times larger than the largest tested in the literature. The stress distribution and the absence of bending loads were verified with strain gages, proving that VHCF tests on risk-volumes of 5000 mm3 can be reliably carried out. Ultrasonic VHCF tests were also carried out on small hourglass specimens, confirming that larger risk-volumes allow for a more reliable design against VHCF failures.

A pragmatic approach to predict fatigue strength concerning the short crack behavior in VHCF

Unlike LCF (low cycle Fatigue) and HCF (high cycle fatigue), VHCF (very high cycle fatigue) failures of high-strength steel are mostly caused by internal nonmetallic inclusions. In view of fact that more than 90% of VHCF life is consumed in the process of crack propagation from inclusion to GBF (granular bright facet) boundary, the SIF (stress intensity factor) KGBF at the periphery of GBF could be regarded as a material constant independent of fatigue life, which could be also considered as the macro threshold SIF controlling the internal small-long crack growth. Therefore, based on experimental research and theoretical analysis, the threshold crack growth stress model was derived from the change of SIF considering the effect of local stress and crack configuration. This model diagramed the relationship between the threshold stress and defect size (including inclusions and cracks) and could be used for fatigue strength prediction. Finally, the validity of the threshold stress-defect size diagram was proved by the VHCF test data of other five kinds of high-strength steels.

VHCF Response up to 109 Cycles of SLM AlSi10Mg Specimens Built in a Vertical Direction

It is well-known that many manufacturing parameters affect the quasi-static and the fatigue response of additive manufacturing (AM) parts. In particular, due to the layer-by-layer production, the load orientation, with respect to the building direction, plays a fundamental role for the fatigue response. This paper investigates the fatigue response up to 109 cycles (very high cycle fatigue (VHCF)) of selective laser melting (SLM) AlSi10Mg specimens built in a vertical direction. Ultrasonic tension-compression tests (stress ratio of –1) are carried out on as-built Gaussian specimens with a large loaded volume (2300 mm3). Fracture surfaces are investigated with the scanning electron microscope to analyze the defects originating the VHCF failure. Probabilistic S-N curves are estimated and analyzed. Experimental results confirm that the defect size controls the VHCF response, thus highlighting the importance of testing large risk volumes for a reliable assessment of VHCF behavior. The average value of the VHCF strength is close to that of the hourglass specimen tested in the literature. The variability of the VHCF strength is instead significantly larger, due to the scattered size distribution of the defects located near the specimen surface, which is the most critical region for crack initiation.

VHCF Response of Two AISI H13 Steels: Effect of Manufacturing Process and Size-Effect

In the last decades, the fatigue lifetime of structural components has increased significantly and in many industrial applications (aerospace, automotive, and energy production industry) is even larger than 1010 cycles. Therefore, the interest in the Very High Cycle Fatigue (VHCF) behavior of materials has grown rapidly, becoming a subject of primary interest among university and industries. In high-strength steels, VHCF failures generally originate from defects/inclusions; consequently, the steel cleanliness significantly affects the VHCF response. Furthermore, since the probability of finding critical defects in a loaded volume increases with the loaded volume, the loaded volume also significantly affects the VHCF response. This is generally referred to as the “size-effect” in VHCF. The present paper investigates the effects of the manufacturing process and the size-effect on the VHCF response of an AISI H13 steel. Experimental tests were performed on hourglass and Gaussian specimens made of two different types of AISI H13 steels: Unrefined H13 and refined Electroslag Remelting (ESR) H13. The analysis of variance (ANOVA), which was carried out on the test results, and the P–S–N curves showed that the two factors (i.e., the manufacturing process and the size-effect) significantly affect the VHCF response.

VHCF response of as‐built SLM AlSi10Mg specimens with large loaded volume

AbstractIt is well known in the literature that fatigue is particularly critical for Additive Manufacturing (AM) parts, because internal defects originating during the AM process represent a critical site for crack initiation. In the literature, the High‐Cycle‐Fatigue (HCF) response of AM parts has been extensively investigated; however, there are few results on the Very‐High‐Cycle‐Fatigue (VHCF) behavior of AM parts, even if the number of machinery components that may sustain VHCF is rapidly increasing in the last years.The present paper investigates the VHCF response of an AlSi10Mg alloy produced through Selective Laser Melting. Ultrasonic tests are carried out on Gaussian specimens with a large loaded volume and show that fatigue failures in VHCF originate from surface and sub‐surface defects with the same mechanism of HCF failures. P‐S‐N curves and fatigue strength at 109 cycles are finally estimated to show the effect of defect size on the VHCF strength.Research highlights Ultrasonic VHCF tests on AlSi10Mg Gaussian specimens produced through SLM. Identification and analysis of critical AM defects inducing VHCF failure. Statistical estimation of models for the prediction of the VHCF response of AM parts. Statistical prediction of effect of defect size on the VHCF response of AM parts.

The role of local plasticity during very high cycle fatigue crack initiation in high-strength steels

Cracks leading to failure in very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) of high-strength steels often initiate at subsurface inclusions with stress intensity factors (SIF) below the classical threshold SIF Kth for long cracks, especially for negative stress ratios. A characteristic fine granular area (FGA) can then be observed at the fracture surface in the vicinity of those crack-initiating inclusions. According to various researchers, the FGA formation might be responsible for the late initiation of a propagable long crack. Microstructural investigations reveal strong local grain refinement along the fracture surface inside the FGA. The origin of the FGA and its influence on the crack initiation in VHCF is discussed controversially in the literature. The grain refinement might be the result of local plasticity around inclusions in VHCF prior to crack initiation or propagation and thereby causal for the late failure. If this is true, there should be a correlation between the FGA dimension and the local plastic zone size. This hypothesis is investigated in detail in this study. For this purpose, the spatial geometry of FGA is systematically analyzed for different fatigued specimens of the high-strength steel 100Cr6. The results are compared to plastic zone size models and the influence of local plasticity on VHCF is discussed. Based on the results, the VHCF failure mechanism proposed by Grad et al. (2012) [1] is extended and improved.

Threshold values for very high cycle fatigue failure of high‐strength steels

AbstractCracks leading to failure in very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) of high‐strength steels mostly initiate at subsurface inclusions at stress intensity factors (SIF) below the classical threshold value Kth for long cracks, especially for negative stress ratios. Here, a characteristic fine granular area (FGA) can be observed at the fracture surface in the vicinity of these initiating inclusions. According to various researchers, the FGA formation might be responsible for the late initiation of a propagable long crack. This study aims to clarify the threshold values of SIF for crack initiation for VHCF failure with FGA formation at nonmetallic inclusions. For this purpose, ultrasonic fatigue tests (R = −1) with the high‐strength steel 100Cr6 (SAE 52100) were carried out until an ultimate number of cycles of 109. In addition, very high cycle stress increase tests were performed. A serial grinding investigation of fatigued specimens acted as a technique to evaluate the distribution of unharmful inclusion in the tested volume. By the combination of these tests, a threshold value of the SIF for the VHCF by FGA formation at inclusions can be derived. This threshold value depends on the size of the crack initiating inclusion.