Vervet Research Articles

Context-dependent alarm responses in wild vervet monkeys

The alarm calls of nonhuman primates are occasionally cited as functionally equivalent to lexical word meaning in human language. Recently, however, it has become increasingly unlikely that one-to-one relations between alarm call structures and predator categories are the default, mainly because many call types are produced in multiple contexts, requiring more complex notions of meaning. For example, male vervet monkeys produce the same alarm calls during encounters with terrestrial predators and neighbouring groups, suggesting that recipients require additional information to attribute meaning to the calls. We empirically tested the hypothesis that vervet monkeys take contextual information into account when responding to each other's alarm calls. In playback experiments, we exposed subjects to recordings of male alarm barks during actual intergroup encounters (predator unlikely) or when there was no intergroup encounter (predator likely). Subjects responded more strongly in the no intergroup encounter situations, typically associated with discovering a hiding predator, measured in terms of startle responses, vigilance behaviour and gazing towards the presumed caller. We discuss the significance of using contextual information for meaning attribution in nonhuman primate communication.

Behavioral responses of vervet monkey Chlorocebus pygerythrus infants in a novel fostering program

ABSTRACT Vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) are considered pests by farmers and homeowners. Consequent attempts to exterminate problem adult vervet monkeys often result in orphaned young offspring, which are sometimes taken to wildlife rehabilitation centers. We assessed the success of a novel fostering program at the Vervet Monkey Foundation, South Africa. Nine orphaned vervet monkeys were fostered to adult conspecific females of existing troops at the Foundation. The fostering protocol focused on reducing the time orphans spent in human rearing and involved a stepwise process of integration. We recorded the behaviors of orphans, including their interactions with their foster mother, to assess the process of fostering. Fostering success was high (89%). Orphans maintained close association with the foster mother and had little or no socio-negative and abnormal behavior. Comparison with literature showed a similar high fostering success in another vervet monkey study, regardless of the period and level of human-caregiving, and it is apparent that the duration of human care is less important than the protocol used for fostering. Nonetheless, our study has conservation relevance for vervet monkey rehabilitation.

Molecular assessment of dietary variation in neighbouring primate groups

Abstract Facing rapid environmental changes and anthropogenic habitat destruction, animal behavioural plasticity becomes an adaptive potential that needs to be considered in conservation strategies along with, for example, genetic diversity. Here, we evaluate to what extent non‐invasive environmental DNA (eDNA) methods may contribute to the assessment of intraspecies behavioural plasticity in terms of foraging behaviour. We analysed DNA metabarcoding data for plant components in the diet of four neighbouring groups of wild vervet monkeys Chlorocebus pygerythrus to identify intergroup variation (IGV). The faecal samples considered for the analyses were limited to the summer season to minimise the impact of seasonality. Each sample was attributed by observation to individuals with known life history data. A plant survey was conducted in each group home range during the study period to account for environmental variation. We observed mixed results when testing whether IGV in plant consumption was greater than intragroup variation, indicating that the influence of social dynamics must be considered. Intragroup variation was positively correlated with group size. We observed IGV in diet composition among all groups as well as in some pairwise comparisons. We found significant dietary differences between two group pairs when considering only adult females. Lastly, we observed IGV in foraging of specific plants that were not explained by their distribution, suggesting behavioural differences in selectivity between groups. Our study system and organism, being a highly social and non‐threatened primate species, with constant gene flow and overlapping territories between groups, provides an ideal model to evaluate the usage of eDNA‐based methods to better understand the impact of social factors on IGV. Our results highlight the need to consider social and demographic factors, the impact of which remains complicated to disentangle from environmental factors. However, we emphasise the great potential for studying social groups using eDNA and that such studies are needed to better understand intraspecific behavioural plasticity in wild populations.

Characterization of monkey adenoviruses with three fiber genes.

Although the occurrence of three fiber genes in monkey adenoviruses had already been described, the relatedness of the "extra" fibers have not yet been discussed. Here we report the genome analysis of two simian adenovirus (SAdV) serotypes from Old World monkeys and the phylogenetic analysis of the multiple fiber genes found in these and related AdVs. One of the newly sequenced serotypes (SAdV-2), isolated from a rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), was classified into species Human mastadenovirus G (HAdV-G), while the other serotype (SAdV-17), originating from a grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops), classified to Simian mastadenovirus F (SAdV-F). We identified unique features in the gene content of these SAdVs compared to those typical for other members of the genus Mastadenovirus. Namely, in the E1B region of SAdV-2, the 19K gene was replaced by an ITR repetition and a copy of the E4 ORF1 gene. Among the 37 genes in both SAdVs, three genes of different lengths, predicted to code for the cellular attachment proteins (the fibers), were found. These proteins exhibit high diversity. Yet, phylogenetic calculations of their conserved parts could reveal the probable evolutionary steps leading to the multiple-fibered contemporary HAdV and SAdV species. Seemingly, there existed (a) common ancestor(s) with two fiber genes for the lineages of the AdVs in species SAdV-B, -E, -F and HAdV-F, alongside a double-fibered ancestor for today's SAdV-C and HAdV-G, which later diverged into descendants forming today's species. Additionally, some HAdV-G members picked up a third fiber gene either to the left-hand or to the in-between position from the existing two. A SAdV-F progenitor also obtained a third copy to the middle, as observed in SAdV-17. The existence of three fiber genes in these contemporary AdVs brings novel possibilities for the design of optimised AdV-based vectors with potential multiple target binding abilities.

STUDYING THE ABILITY FOR RESEARCH ACTIVITY IN MONKEYS

The level of research ability in four species of lower monkeys was studied: green monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops), Javanese macaques (Macaca fascicularis), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas). The assessment was made according to such indicators as the level of research activity, the dynamics of research activity, the diversity of research activities. The results found indicate a higher level of the studied parameters in Javan macaques and hamadryas baboons in comparison with rhesus macaques and green monkeys.

Classifying Kidney Disease in a Vervet Model Using Spatially Encoded Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Perfusion Parameters.

Early stages of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) are difficult to diagnose in patients with type 2 diabetes. This work was aimed at identifying contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) perfusion parameters, a microcirculatory biomarker indicative of early DKD progression. CEUS kidney flash-replenishment data were acquired in control, insulin resistant and diabetic vervet monkeys (N=16). By use of a mono-exponential model, time-intensity curve parameters related to blood volume (A), velocity (β) and flow rate (perfusion index [PI]) were extracted from 10 concentric kidney layers to study spatial perfusion patterns that could serve as strong indicators of disease. Mean squared error (MSE) was used to assess model performance. Features calculated from the perfusion parameters were inputs for the linear regression models to determine which features could distinguish between cohorts. The mono-exponential model performed well, with average MSEs (±standard deviation) of 0.0254 (±0.0210), 0.0321 (±0.0242) and 0.0287 (±0.0130) for the control, insulin resistant and diabetic cohorts, respectively. Perfusion index features, with blood pressure, were the best classifiers between cohorts (p < 0.05). CEUS has the potential to detect early microvascular changes, providing insight into disease-related structural changes in the kidney. The sensitivity of this technique should be explored further by assessing various stages of DKD.

The Association between Genetic Variants and Gene Expression in RAAS Genes Using Captive-Bred Vervet Monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops)

Mendelian genetics contribute largely to the development of hypertension; therefore, the identification of genetic variants related to blood pressure (BP) regulation remains crucial and may reveal new therapeutic drug targets. The purpose of the present study was to screen the captive-bred Vervet colony for salt-sensitive sequence variants or single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the selected Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) genes associated with salt sensitivity. Blood samples were collected from 16 captive-bred Vervet monkeys for genotyping and gene expression analysis. The impact of the identified sequence variants was determined using online prediction tools. Sanger sequencing analysis revealed 21 sequence variants in AGT, CYP3A5, GRK4, and SCL4A5, of which 19 were novel and two were previously reported in humans. All novel variants were either predicted to be polymorphic, disease-causing, or possibly damaging by prediction tools. Furthermore, the mRNA expression for AGT was significantly higher in the normal BP group ( p value = 0.02), and a similar trend was observed for CYP3A5 and GRK4, whereas SCL4A5 was higher in the hypertensive group. The identified salt-sensitive variants specifically in GRK4 may be suggestive to be the attributing factor of the elevated BP levels in these captive-bred Vervet monkeys. Therefore, RAAS variants could be considered as a biomarker to identify the potential risk of developing hypertension in both humans and nonhuman primates.

The detection of Mycoplasma sturni and Mycoplasma moatsii from the choana of a barn swallow (Hirundo rustica): a case report

BackgroundMycoplasmas are found in many different species. Until now 26 avian mycoplasma species have been described, but in the most free ranging bird species the prevalence and significance of Mycoplasma spp. is still unclear.Case presentationIn May 2021 a barn swallow (Hirundo rustica) was brought to a veterinary clinic after it hit a window. As part of the routine exam a choanal swab was taken for mycoplasma culture and for the detection of mycoplasmas using a Mycoplasma-genus-specific Polymerase chain reaction.Six single colony subcultures were obtained by the cultivation. Obtained subcultures were investigated by sequencing the 16S rRNA and the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic transcribed spacer region sequence. The 16S rRNA gene sequence from one subculture had a homology of 99.03% and the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic transcribed spacer region sequence of 100% with the sequence of Mycoplasma sturni.The 16S rRNA gene sequence from the other five subcultures shared a homology of 99.89% and the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic transcribed spacer region sequence of 99.81% with the sequence of Mycoplasma moatsii.ConclusionsAccording to the available literature this is the first report about the detection of M. moatsii, in the respiratory tract of a barn swallow. M. moatsii was previously only found in grivit monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops), Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) and a mute swan (Cygnus olor). The role of mycoplasmas in barn swallows is still unknown, especially as in the present case both mycoplasma species do not seem to cause clinical symptoms.

Lethal Aggression in Captive Monkeys

Establishing the characteristics of monkey lethal aggression, assessing the age and sex of aggressors and victims, and the nature of the aggressors' actions seems necessary to identify the evolutionary roots of cases of human lethal aggression. In addition, the study of the features of lethal aggression can be considered as a condition for the development of measures aimed at preventing its manifestations in captive monkeys. The aim of the study is to study the species-specific features of lethal aggression in captive macaques, baboons and guenons. An analysis was made of cases of intra-group lethal aggression that occurred over a 10-year period in Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), Crab-eathing macaques (Macaca fascicularis), Pig-tail macaques (Macaca nemestrina), Green monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops), Hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas), Anubis baboons (Papio anubis) kept by social groups. It has been established that cases of lethal aggression are observed in all 6 studied species of monkeys. It was shown that in groups consisting of adult males, the highest frequency of cases of lethal aggression was noted in Rhesus macaques, and the lowest in Hamadryas baboons. Species-specific differences were found in the nature of lethal aggression in monkey family groups consisting of males, females, infants, and adolescents. It has been established that in Hamadryas baboons, Anubis baboons and Pig-tail macaques, that is, in species with pronounced sexual dimorphism in body size and social status, the main form of lethal aggression in family groups is infanticide committed by a single sexually mature male. In Rhesus monkeys, Crab-eathing macaques and Green monkeys, that is, those species that are characterized by relatively mild sexual dimorphism in body size and social status, the predominant form of lethal aggression in family groups is the collective actions of females aimed at young and adult members of the group.

Maternal social position and survival to weaning in arid‐country vervet monkeys

AbstractObjectivesWe consider the relative contributions of maternal rank and sociability to the survival of infant vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) to nutritional independence (~210 days) in a generally resource‐poor environment.MethodsWe analyzed survival data from 153 infants born to 60 mothers across three free‐ranging troops and 10 yearly birth cohorts at a South African research site experiencing general but variable resource scarcity.ResultsThe population was characterized by a pre‐weaning mortality of 30% (Range: 9%–85%), with a median age at death of 50 days. In addition to the consequences of resource availability, increased infant survival was independently and equivalently positively associated with higher maternal rank and a greater number of maternal spatial partners.DiscussionWe use this outcome to suggest that apparent discrepancies across sites and species in the relative importance of different maternal attributes in determining reproductive outcomes may be resolved by considering more closely local sources of infant mortality.

Lab cognition going wild: Implementing a new portable touchscreen system in vervet monkeys.

Touchscreen technology has provided researchers with opportunities to conduct well-controlled cognitive tests with captive animals, allowing researchers to isolate individuals, select participants based on specific traits, and control aspects of the environment. In this study, we aimed to investigate the potential utility of touchscreen technology for the study of cognition in wild vervet monkeys. We assessed the viability of touchscreen testing by comparing rates of participation between wild and sanctuary-housed vervets. Additionally, we compared performance on a simple associative learning task in order to verify that wild participants are able to engage meaningfully with a touchscreen task presented in their natural environment. We presented eight groups of vervet monkeys (four wild and four sanctuary groups, totalling 240 individuals) with a portable touchscreen device. The touchscreen displayed tasks in which food rewards could be gained by touching a stimulus displayed on the screen. We assessed individuals' likelihood of interacting with the touchscreen, their frequency of participation, and their performance on a simple associative learning task. We found that sanctuary-housed monkeys were more likely to interact with the touchscreen. Participation in wild vervet monkeys was influenced by sex and age. However, monkeys in the two contexts (sanctuary vs. wild) did not differ in their performance on a simple associative learning task. This study demonstrates that touchscreen technology can be successfully deployed in a population of wild primates. This gives us a starting point to test animal cognition under natural conditions that include varying group composition, environmental challenges and ongoing activities such as foraging, which are challenging to recreate in captivity. While rates of participation were lower than those found in captivity, reasonable sample sizes can be achieved, and wild primates can successfully learn touchscreen tasks in a manner comparable to their captive counterparts.

Crop Loss and Damage by Primate Species in Southwest Ethiopia

Crop damage is a major form of human-primate conflict that not only affects the livelihoods of farmers living close to forest areas but also threatens nonhuman primate conservation. This study aimed to investigate the causes of crop loss and foraging by nonhuman primates in southwest Ethiopia. For the purpose of gathering data, we used a questionnaire and direct observation. We employed simple random sampling techniques to select villages and respondents. From the nine selected villages, a total of 130 household samples were identified for the questionnaire. The primates responsible for crop damage were olive baboons and grivet monkeys. Maize, barley, teff, potatoes, sorghum, and other crops were among those foraged by the nonhuman primate species. Farmland close to the woodland boundary suffered more damage than farmland further away. The total amount of maize damaged by the olive baboons and grivet monkeys in the selected kebeles varied significantly. The majority of the respondents used guarding, and a few of them used scarecrows to protect crops from damage by primates. The highest crop damage occurred in the Atiro Tigre and Arigno Gefere villages, while the lowest occurred in the Sedecha villages. The flowering stage of the maize suffered the most, and the seedling stage suffered the least, from grivet monkeys foraging. The growth of crops that are less edible to nonhuman primates, especially on the forest edges, would lessen crop damage.

Reproductive ecology offers some answers to the pepperbark tree persistence puzzle in the Kruger National Park, South Africa

Warburgia salutaris (pepperbark tree) is an endangered species greatly valued in South Africa for use in traditional medicine. In one of the few remaining W. salutaris conserved sites, the Kruger National Park (KNP), fruit production is extremely low, with a relatively low proportion of juveniles in the population. This study aimed firstly, to understand the reproductive ecology of W. salutaris and, secondly, to investigate factors that may contribute to the limited fruit (and seed) output in KNP by comparing results from KNP with a reproductively successful orchard in Eston, KwaZulu-Natal Province. In the first part of the study, potential pollinators were observed and collected for further analysis; four pollination treatments (i.e. autonomous self-, geitonogamous self-, cross- and natural pollination) were set-up to elucidate the breeding system; pollen viability was assessed; and pollen tube growth for self-, cross- and natural pollination was compared. In the second part of the study, fruit production and maturation was assessed; seed dispersers were identified; and germination success of seeds from natural and cultivated populations were compared. Pollination trials revealed that W. salutaris is likely self-incompatible as self-pollinated flowers in neither KNP nor Eston resulted in mature fruit. In addition, the majority of flowers that began to form fruit in the natural-bagged treatment (i.e. naturally pollinated flowers bagged to protect from seed predation) were aborted. Pollen viability was high across both the KNP sub-populations and Eston, while percentage pollen tube occurrence for self- and cross-pollination was higher in Eston than KNP. Mature KNP fruit were only present on three trees in one sub-population during the two-year study period. Ceratitis cosyra , the marula fly, was the only seed predator in W. salutaris fruit, and 20% of collected KNP fruit were affected by seed predation. Frugivore observations in a supplemental population at Leshiba Mountain Retreat (Limpopo) revealed that baboons ( Papio ursinus ) and vervet monkeys ( Chlorocebus aethiops pygerythrus ) eat W. salutaris fruit (but not the exocarp) and possibly orally discard the seeds at a later stage. Seeds from KNP fruit were viable and had the highest percentage germination, followed by Eston, and Leshiba. Overall, W. salutaris has many floral visitors, with Lepidoptera the most likely pollinators, pollen viability is high, and seeds that are produced germinate successfully. Therefore, the impaired reproductive output in KNP appears to be in the high occurrence of aborted fruit, supporting the hypothesis that the species relies on clonal reproduction and resprouting to persist in KNP. However, long-term reliance on clonal reproduction may impair the ability to reproduce sexually, which is ultimately necessary to establish genetically diverse genets that can adapt to environmental changes.

The representation of animal communication and language evolution in introductory linguistics textbooks

AbstractThe last three decades have brought a wealth of new empirical data and methods that have transformed investigations of language evolution into a fast-growing field of scientific research. In this paper, we investigate how the results of this research are represented in the content of the most popular introductory linguistic textbooks. We carried out a comprehensive computer-assisted qualitative study, in which we inspected eighteen English-language textbooks for all content related to the evolutionary emergence of language and its uniqueness in nature, in order to evaluate its thematic scope, selection of topics, theories covered, researchers cited, structural soundness, currency, and factual accuracy. Overall, we found that the content of interest lacks a defined canonical representation across the textbooks. The coverage of animal communication was relatively broad, with some recurring classic examples, such as vervet monkeys or honeybees; this content was mostly structured around the ‘design features’ approach. In contrast, the coverage of topics related to language origins and evolution was much less extensive and systematic, and tended to include a relatively large the proportion of content of historical value (i.e. creation myths, ‘bow-wow’ theories). We conclude by making recommendations for future editions of textbooks, in particular, a better representation of important frameworks such as signalling theory, and of current research results in this fast-paced field.

Detection of Hepatocystis sp. Infection in Vervet Monkeys (Chlorocebus Pygrythrus) Imported from Tanzania Using Molecular and Microscopic Methods.

The present study examined and reported Hepatocystis sp. infection in wild-caught vervet monkeys imported from Tanzania into the Razi vaccine and serum research institute (RVSRI). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting of 18S rRNA gene, followed by sequencing, Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST), and phylogenetic studies revealed that 82.8% of the imported monkeys were infected with Hepatocystis. Nevertheless, as illustrated by a routine parasitological examination of blood smears and histopathological examination of liver collected samples, the rates of Hepatocystis infection were obtained at 33.9% and 38.1%, respectively. Two isolated 18S rRNA gene sequences of Hepatocystis sp. from Tanzanian vervet monkeys were registered under the accession numbers OM281567 and OM281564 in GenBank. Although Hepatocystis infections do not cause clinical disease, they may interfere with the research data. The results of the current study pointed out that after proper nutrition and implementation of good physical environmental conditions for 3-4 months, the imported monkeys obviously gained weight and most of their hematological parameters, even in the presence of the parasite, returned to the normal levels and the experimental monkeys would be ready for use in studies.

Retinal tissue oxygenation differs between eye fundus regions, but not with age, sex, and intraocular pressure in non‐human primates

AbstractPurpose: Oxygen plays a central role in multiple physiological and pathophysiological processes, and retinal oxygen supply has been found to be an important factor in many ocular diseases. Animal models are often used to study the pathophysiological mechanisms of diseases, especially non‐human primates (NHP) due to their great similarities with humans. Few data are available on the quantification of oxygen in the retina of NHP. The objectives of the study were to establish NHP tissue oxygen saturation (StO2) normative values in different eye fundus regions, compare StO2 in these regions and analyse how StO2 correlates to age, sex and intraocular pressure (IOP).Methods: 44 vervet monkeys (28 males/16 females, 5–28 years old) were included in the study. IOP was measured in both eyes with an ocular tonometer. StO2 was measured in both eyes using the Zilia Ocular oximeter in the temporal (tONH) and nasal (nONH) optic nerve head, the peripapillary region (pPL) and the perifovea (pFV). T‐tests were used to compare between regions (paired), between both eyes (paired) and between sexes (independent). Kendall's tau was used to assess the correlation between StO2 and age, as well as that between StO2 and IOP.Results: Mean StO2 was 55.7% ± 4.3% in the tONH, 55.0% ± 3.9% in the nONH, 63.9% ± 7.3% in the pPL and 74.2% ± 3.4% in the pFV. No significant difference in StO2 was observed between the left and the right eyes, just as no significant difference was observed between tONH and nONH. The StO2 was lower in tONH and nONH than in pPL (p = 0.0226 and 0.0060, respectively). No correlation was found between StO2 and age, StO2 and sex, or StO2 and IOP.Conclusions: StO2 in the retinal tissue of NHP has been assessed for the first time. Regional variations similar to previous human studies were observed. The results of this study show the applicability of the Zilia Ocular on NHP and provide normative values that can serve as a basis for future studies.

DIVERSITY AND THREATS OF MEDIUM AND LARGE-SIZED MAMMALS IN AMORO FOREST, WEST GOJJAM ZONE, AMHARA, ETHIOPIA

The objective of this study was to assess the species composition, and relative abundance and to determine major threats of medium and large-sized mammals in Amoro Forest. Line transects surveying and indirect surveys method (including fresh tracks, scats, hair, spines, and burrows) were used to survey mammalian diversity. A survey was conducted in the early morning from 6:00 to 10:00 and late afternoon from 16:00 to 19:00. Key interviews and direct site observationswere carried out to assess the major threat of mammals in the study area. A total of 12 species of medium and large-sized mammals belonging to six orders and eight families were recorded. Porcupine (Hystrix cristata), Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops), and Olive baboon (Papio anubis) were among the medium-sized mammals while, Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), Leopard (Panthera pardus) and Common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) were among the large-sized mammals observed in the study area. Shannon–Wiener Index values were low (H′ = 1.666) whereas, the Simpson's index (1-D) of diversity showed the highest species diversity (0.761) in the study area. Species richness and evenness varied from habitat to habitat in the Amoro forest. Land degradation and different anthropogenic activities such as; illegal logging of trees, overgrazing, agricultural activities, and human-wildlife conflicts were the foremost observed threats to the mammals in the study area. Community participation and awareness creation are very important to limit the impact of anthropogenic activities threatening wildlife.

Network formation during social integration in juvenile vervet monkeys

Understanding the development of social relationships, or the process of socialization, can provide insights into the processes by which social network structures emerge and vary across species. In this analysis, we investigated the process of network formation from a developmental perspective using data from three groups of wild vervet monkeys, Chlorocebus pygerythrus . We used a dynamic social network approach that allowed us to capture patterns of social change over time. Specifically, we considered the temporal dynamics of two separate interaction networks, spatial and grooming associations, and investigated these patterns between the sexes. We used these data to test predictions derived from a developmental framework on relationship formation put forward by Kohn (2019, Animal Behaviour , 154 , 1–6). We found that females and males differed in their grooming patterns but were similar in their spatial associations. Furthermore, spatial proximity ego-networks showed seasonal patterns, whereas grooming ego-networks did not. When all relevant centrality measures were considered in concert, we found evidence to suggest that a distinctive network structure forms across the course of development, with ego-networks composed of few strong ties and many weak ties, regardless of behaviour and sex. However, these networks were not produced according to the processes described by Kohn (2019), perhaps because Kohn's framework is concerned mainly with network composition and not structure. Overall, our results provide evidence for social niche construction across development, with the formation of a core social ‘bubble’ of strong ties that can provide a consistent and predictable immediate social environment. More broadly, these patterns suggest that network formation is a process of ongoing adjustment to the social environment, and not an attempt to meet an optimal end goal. • We examined sociality in vervets following Kohn (2019, Animal Behaviour , 154 , 1–6). • Vervet monkeys did not develop following Kohn's three socialization phases. • Spatial ego-networks were seasonal; male and female grooming ego-networks differed. • Spatial and grooming ego-networks had few strong ties and many weak ties. • Social integration involves continual adjustments via social niche construction.

Diversity and Relative Abundance of Ungulates and Other Medium and Large Mammals in Flooded Forests in the Dahomey Gap (Togo).

"The Dahomey Gap" is a human-derived mostly savannah region that separates the Guineo-Congolian rainforest block into two major units: the Upper Guinean and the Lower Guinean Forest blocks. Several forest patches are distributed throughout this savannah-dominated habitat. The mammal communities in the Dahomey Gap region have been poorly studied. In this paper we analyse the species richness and abundance of, as well as conservation implications for, medium and large mammals (especially ungulates) inhabiting a complex of flooded forests near the Mono river in south-eastern Togo. We use several field methods to describe the species richness of mammals in this area, including camera-trapping, recce transects, Kilometric Index of Abundance (KIA) estimates, examination of hunters' catches and face-to-face hunter interviews. Overall, we directly recorded 19 species that coexist in these forests. Based on interviews, nine other species were confirmed as present in the study area. Only five species were common: Cephalophus rufilatus, Tragelaphus scriptus, Chlorocebus aethiops, Atilax paludinosus and Herpestes ichneumon. The area still contains various threatened species such as Tragelaphus spekii and Hippopotamus amphibius. We stress that to ensure the protection of the Dahomey Gap mammals, it is important to seriously consider protecting not only the forest patches but also the surroundings, mainly savannah landscapes.

Effectiveness of buccal dental‐microwear texture in African Cercopithecoidea dietary discrimination

AbstractObjectivesThis study compares ISO (ISO/FDIS 25178) roughness parameters, calculated from three‐dimensional (3D) molar buccal microtexture surfaces, among African Cercopithecoidea primates with different diets.Materials and MethodsWe examined 98 lower second molars from seven African Cercopithecoidea species with diverse dietary regimes and habitat exploitation. Buccal dental surfaces were analyzed using a Sensofar Plu Neox laser scanning confocal microscope. Thirty‐eight, areal surface texture parameters were extracted (Mountain 7® software). Uni‐ and multivariate statistics were used to obtain diet‐related patterns of buccal‐microwear textures and feeding ecology to differentiate between species.ResultsBuccal‐dental 3D texture parameters discriminate between Cercopithecoidea diets. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed significant variation in microwear texture between forest‐adapted Mandrillus sphinx, which showed coarse flat features, and grassland forager Theropithecus gelada, whose buccal surfaces were characterized by a high density of thin features. Buccal‐microwear textures of folivorous species (Colobus polykomos) were related to a lower density of thicker surface indentations in comparison to Papio anubis and Cercocebus atys which are adapted to the consumption of tough and hard foods. The limited interspecific variation in the buccal‐microwear textures of savanna dwellers (Chlorocebus pygerythrus and Chlorocebus aethiops) probably reflects similarities in their foraging diets.DiscussionSignificant variations between‐species demonstrate that 3D microwear ISO roughness parameters applied to buccal enamel surfaces can distinguish between the diets of Cercopithecoidea.