Vertical Moisture Gradient Research Articles

Positive tropical marine low‐cloud cover feedback inferred from cloud‐controlling factors

AbstractDifferences in simulations of tropical marine low‐cloud cover (LCC) feedback are sources of significant spread in temperature responses of climate models to anthropogenic forcing. Here we show that in models the feedback is mainly driven by three large‐scale changes—a strengthening tropical inversion, increasing surface latent heat flux, and an increasing vertical moisture gradient. Variations in the LCC response to these changes alone account for most of the spread in model‐projected 21st century LCC changes. A methodology is devised to constrain the LCC response observationally using sea surface temperature (SST) as a surrogate for the latent heat flux and moisture gradient. In models where the current climate's LCC sensitivities to inversion strength and SST variations are consistent with observed, LCC decreases systematically, which would increase absorption of solar radiation. These results support a positive LCC feedback. Correcting biases in the sensitivities will be an important step toward more credible simulation of cloud feedbacks.

Wetting and Drying Variability of the Shallow Subsurface Beneath a Snowpack in California's Southern Sierra Nevada

In recent years, regions such as the western United States have been projected to have drastically changing snow and soil moisture conditions in mountainous regions. The importance of subsurface flow during snowmelt for groundwater recharge and streamflow has long been known. This study was conducted to investigate the variability of soil wetting and drying dynamics within a network of soil moisture sensors beneath a seasonally persistent snowpack in California's southern Sierra Nevada. Data were analyzed to quantify the persistence of soil moisture, the rate of change in soil moisture, and vertical gradients of soil moisture during the 2009, 2010, and 2011 water years at varying elevations (1750–2000 m), aspects (north, south, and flat), and canopy conditions (open, drip edge, and under canopy). Results from this study demonstrated snowmelt water moving through a wetted shallow region of the soil in most locations, while other locations displayed drier conditions in the top layers of soil and higher rates of soil moisture change deeper within the soil. This occurred at various depths within the top 1 m of soil, displaying high variability across the catchment and under different canopy conditions. More than 1400 pulse events above a rate of change in water content of 0.06 cm cm−1 d−1 were observed, with many >0.10 cm cm−1 d−1. Average numbers of pulse events per year ranged from 1 to 18, with a median of 4.3 for all sensors. The lower elevation sensors averaged 6.0 wetting events per year reaching at least 60‐cm depth and the upper sensors averaged 4.7, with standard deviations among elevation and aspect clusters ranging from 2.5 to 3.0 for upper elevation sites and 2.9 to 3.2 for lower elevation sites. This demonstrates the high variability of the wetting and drying dynamics of the top 1 m of soil at the sub‐hillslope scale. These results have implications for groundwater recharge, plant production, and streamflow response in a changing climate.

Mesoscale Eddies Affect Near-Surface Turbulent Exchange: Evidence from Lidar and Tower Measurements

AbstractThe eddy-covariance technique tends to underestimate turbulent heat fluxes, which results in nonclosure of the surface energy balance. This study shows experimental evidence that mesoscale turbulent organized structures, which are inherently not captured by the standard eddy-covariance technique, can affect near-surface turbulent exchange. By using a combined setup of three Doppler wind lidars above a cropland-dominated area in Germany, low-frequency turbulent structures were detected in the surface layer down to a few meters above ground. In addition, data from two micrometeorological stations in the study area were analyzed with respect to energy balance closure. In accordance with several previous studies, the data confirm a strong friction velocity dependence of the energy balance residual. At both stations, the energy balance residual was found to be positively correlated with the vertical moisture gradient in the lower atmospheric boundary layer, but at only one station was it correlated with the temperature gradient. This result indicates that mesoscale transport probably contributes more to the latent heat flux than to the sensible heat flux, but this conclusion depends largely on the measurement site. Moreover, flow distortion due to tower mountings and measurement devices affects the energy balance closure considerably for certain wind directions.

A Satellite Study of the Relationship between Sea Surface Temperature and Column Water Vapor over Tropical and Subtropical Oceans

Abstract The known characteristics of the relationship between sea surface temperature (SST) and column water vapor (CWV) are reevaluated with recent satellite observations over tropical and subtropical oceans. Satellite data acquired by the Aqua Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for Earth Observing System (AMSR-E), Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS)/Advanced Microwave Sounder Unit (AMSU) suite, the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) precipitation radar (PR), and the Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) SeaWinds are analyzed together for 7 years from October 2002 to September 2009. CWV is decomposed into surface humidity, presumably coupled closely to SST, and the water vapor scale height as an index of vertical moisture gradient between the boundary layer and the free troposphere. Surface relative humidity is climatologically homogeneous across tropical and subtropical oceans, while the dependence of CWV on SST varies from one region to another. SST mainly accounts for the variation of CWV with the water vapor scale height, which is virtually invariant over subtropical oceans. On the other hand, over tropical oceans, the variability of CWV is explained not only by SST but also by a systematic change of the water vapor scale height. The regional contrast between tropical and subtropical oceans is discussed in the context of the regional moisture budget including vertical moisture transport through convection.

The role of the regeneration niche for the vertical stratification of vascular epiphytes

Abstract:Vertical stratification of vascular epiphytes is frequently attributed to niche partitioning along microclimatic gradients but experimental confirmations of this notion are rare. This study investigates the role of the regeneration phase for the stratification of five bromeliad (Catopsis sessiliflora, Guzmania subcorymbosa, Tillandsia anceps, T. bulbosa and Werauhia gladioliflora) and seven aroid species (Anthurium acutangulum, A. brownii, A. clavigerum, A. durandii, A. friedrichsthalii, A. hacumense and A. scandens) in a Panamanian rain forest. We documented gradients of temperature, vapour pressure deficit and light (n = 10 d) as well as species height distributions (n = 11–120). Microclimatic gradients were substantial (maximal T and RH differences between strata: 5 °C and 18%, respectively) and mean attachment heights of the study species (range = 4–21 m) differed significantly. We tested sensitivity to recurrent drought (four treatments) during germination (all species, cumulative germination of 20 seeds, n = 3) and seedling growth (four aroid species, n = 25). Seedling survival of six aroid species transplanted to three heights (n = 27) was monitored in situ. Some species did not germinate under severe recurrent drought while others germinated at the same rate in all treatments. Seedlings of the most exposed species grew fastest under intermediate recurrent drought while those of the other three species grew fastest when kept constantly wet. Survival of transplanted seedlings did not depend on species attachment height, but this may be attributable to insufficient statistical power. Taken together, the results suggest that the stratification can be explained to a large degree by differential sensitivity to the vertical moisture gradient during the regeneration phase.

Spatio-temporal soil moisture variability in Southwest Germany observed with a new monitoring network within the COPS domain

Within the ‘Convective and Orographically-induced Precipitation Study’ (COPS) 2007 in Southwest Germany and Northeast France a soil moisture monitoring network was installed. The aim of the network is to identify the interaction between the temporal and spatial variability of the soil moisture field and its influence on the energy balance and the moisture availability in the planetary boundary layer. The network is comprised of a large number of newly developed low-cost soil moisture sensors based on the frequency-domain reflectometry method (FDR). In total 47 soil moisture stations within the COPS domain were each equipped with two to four sensors simultaneously measuring vertical profiles of soil moisture and soil temperature down to 50 cm depth. This contribution describes the soil moisture network, its installation procedure and the calibration of the sensor output signal. Furthermore we discuss the soil texture distribution within the study area and present first analyses of the spatio-temporal soil moisture variability during a 13 month period from June 2007 till June 2008 based on regional differences and site specific properties (altitude and soil texture). Results show that the altitude plays a key role for the overall soil moisture pattern relative to the area mean due to the direct linkage to precipitation patterns. Soil texture controls the vertical soil moisture gradient relative to the near surface soil moisture, as their properties control water storage and drainage characteristics. Both factors significantly influence regional soil moisture patterns in Southwest Germany. Zusammenfassung –

The Importance of Soil Moisture and Soil Structure for InSAR Phase and Backscatter, as Determined by FDTD Modeling

In this paper, we introduce a finite-difference time-domain simulator that accurately models the interaction of microwaves with realistic soils, specifically from spaceborne interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR). The modeled soils are characterized by surface roughness, correlation length, bulk moisture content, vertical moisture gradient, and small air-filled-void content. Simulation results include both backscatter and interferometric phase, and we are particularly interested in assessing the potential of the latter as a proxy for soil moisture. We find that differences in homogeneous bulk moisture result in only small phase differences (< 5?). In contrast, combinations of vertical moisture gradients and small air-filled voids, which may typically exist in more realistic soils, can produce phase changes > 30? for HH and > 50? for VV when the soil moisture is varied from 3% to 30% in the uppermost 2 cm of the soil. Phase changes of this magnitude are easily detectable by spaceborne InSAR techniques. While a strong phase response to a change in mean bulk moisture is common to vertical moisture gradient and small air-filled-void cases, their corresponding backscatter responses are very different. A vertical moisture gradient makes the backscatter response dramatically flatter compared with the case of uniform moisture; in contrast, the introduction of air-filled voids barely alters the backscatter. Thus, it may be possible to infer near-surface soil-structure parameters such as vertical gradients or fractions of voids and inhomogeneities from combined SAR phase and backscatter data. Future SAR sensors could be optimized for this purpose. Prior theoretical work based on the assumption of vertically uniform soil-moisture distributions may need to be adjusted, and the lack of a theory that accommodates more complex soil structures may explain why backscatter inversions have yet to result in a viable operational system.

A 5-yr 40-km-Resolution Global Climatology of Superrefraction for Ground-Based Weather Radars

The propagation of electromagnetic waves emitted from ground-based meteorological radars is determined by the stratification of the atmosphere. In extreme superrefractive situations characterized by strong temperature inversions or strong vertical gradients of moisture, the radar beam can be deflected toward the ground (ducting or trapping). This phenomenon often results in spurious returned echoes and misinterpretation of radar images such as erroneous precipitation detection. In this work, a 5-yr global climatology of the frequency of superrefractive and ducting conditions and of trapping-layer base height has been produced using refractivity computations from ECMWF temperature, moisture, and pressure analyses at a 40-km horizontal resolution. The aim of this climatology is to better document how frequent such events are, which is a prerequisite for fully benefiting from radar data information for the multiple purposes of model validation, precipitation analysis, and data assimilation. First, the main climatological features are summarized for the whole globe: high- and midlatitude oceans seldom experience superrefraction or ducting whereas tropical oceans are strongly affected, especially in regions where the trade wind inversion is intense and lying near the surface. Over land, seasonal averages of superrefraction (ducting) frequencies reach 80% (40%) over tropical moist areas year-round but remain below 40% (15%) in most other regions. A particular focus is then laid on Europe and the United States, where extensive precipitation radar networks already exist. Seasonal statistics exhibit a pronounced diurnal cycle of ducting occurrences, with averaged frequencies peaking at 60% in summer late afternoon over the eastern half of the United States, the Balkans, and the Po Valley but no ducts by midday. Similarly high ducting frequencies are found over the southwestern coast of the United States at night. A potentially strong reduction of ducting occurrences with increased radar height (especially in midlatitude summer late afternoon) is evidenced by initiating refractivity vertical gradient computations from either the lowest or the second lowest model level. However, installing radar on tall towers also brings other problems, such as a possible amplification of sidelobe clutter echoes.

A 5-yr 40-km-Resolution Global Climatology of Superrefraction for Ground-Based Weather Radars

Abstract The propagation of electromagnetic waves emitted from ground-based meteorological radars is determined by the stratification of the atmosphere. In extreme superrefractive situations characterized by strong temperature inversions or strong vertical gradients of moisture, the radar beam can be deflected toward the ground (ducting or trapping). This phenomenon often results in spurious returned echoes and misinterpretation of radar images such as erroneous precipitation detection. In this work, a 5-yr global climatology of the frequency of superrefractive and ducting conditions and of trapping-layer base height has been produced using refractivity computations from ECMWF temperature, moisture, and pressure analyses at a 40-km horizontal resolution. The aim of this climatology is to better document how frequent such events are, which is a prerequisite for fully benefiting from radar data information for the multiple purposes of model validation, precipitation analysis, and data assimilation. First, the main climatological features are summarized for the whole globe: high- and midlatitude oceans seldom experience superrefraction or ducting whereas tropical oceans are strongly affected, especially in regions where the trade wind inversion is intense and lying near the surface. Over land, seasonal averages of superrefraction (ducting) frequencies reach 80% (40%) over tropical moist areas year-round but remain below 40% (15%) in most other regions. A particular focus is then laid on Europe and the United States, where extensive precipitation radar networks already exist. Seasonal statistics exhibit a pronounced diurnal cycle of ducting occurrences, with averaged frequencies peaking at 60% in summer late afternoon over the eastern half of the United States, the Balkans, and the Po Valley but no ducts by midday. Similarly high ducting frequencies are found over the southwestern coast of the United States at night. A potentially strong reduction of ducting occurrences with increased radar height (especially in midlatitude summer late afternoon) is evidenced by initiating refractivity vertical gradient computations from either the lowest or the second lowest model level. However, installing radar on tall towers also brings other problems, such as a possible amplification of sidelobe clutter echoes.

Variation of radio refractivity with respect to moisture and temperature and influence on radar ray path

In this study, the variation of radio refractivity with respect to temperature and moisture is analyzed. Also, the effects of vertical gradients in temperature and moisture on the propagation paths of electromagnetic waves of weather radar are examined for several sites across the United States using several years of sounding data from the National Weather Service. The ray path is important for identifying storm characteristics and for properly using the radar data in initializing numerical weather prediction models. It is found that during the warm season the radio refractivity gradient is more sensitive to moisture gradients than to temperature gradients. Ray paths from the commonly accepted vertical ray path model are compared to a ray path computed from a stepwise ray tracing algorithm using data from actual soundings. For the sample of about 16 000 soundings examined, we find that only a small fraction of the ray paths diverge significantly from those calculated using a ray path model based on the US Standard Atmosphere. While the problem of ray ducting in the presence of a temperature inversion is fairly well known, we identify the presence of a strong vertical moisture gradient as the culprit in the majority of the cases where significant deviations occurred.

Improvement of the Temperature and Moisture Retrievals in the Lower Troposphere Using AIRS and GPS Radio Occultation Measurements

Abstract Accurate temperature and water vapor profiles in the middle and lower troposphere (LT) are crucial for understanding the water cycle, cloud systems, and energy balance. Global positioning system (GPS) radio occultation (RO) is the first technique that can provide a high-vertical-resolution all-weather refractivity profile, which is a function of pressure, temperature, and moisture. However, in the moist LT over the Tropics, the refractivity retrievals from GPS RO data are often significantly negatively biased because of tracking errors and propagation effects related to sharp vertical moisture gradients that may result in superrefraction (SR). The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) is a nadir-viewing sounder that can measure vertical temperature and moisture profiles with about 1–2-km vertical resolution. However, AIRS observations cannot usually obtain accurate temperature and water vapor profiles in the planetary boundary layer (PBL) because of the poor resolving power in the LT. This study uses simulations based on radiosonde profiles by combining the AIRS and the GPS RO measurements to obtain the best temperature and moisture retrievals in the LT. Different approaches are used for the drier LT and the moist LT. For the drier LT, where GPS RO data are not affected by SR errors, a multivariable regression algorithm for inverting the combined AIRS and GPS RO measurements is used. In the moist LT (e.g., SR on top of PBL), the combined AIRS and GPS RO regression inversion above the LT is used as the first guess for AIRS-only physical retrieval, which is extended into the LT. The results show that combining AIRS and GPS RO data effectively constrains the individual solutions, and therefore significantly improves inversion results. The algorithm is also applied for all available radiosonde profiles (19 profiles) over a 1-month period from the site characterized by strong SR on top of the PBL. Retrieved temperature and water vapor profiles yield unbiased low-resolution refractivity profiles in the PBL.

Alpine lee cyclogenesis influence on air‐sea heat exchanges and marine atmospheric boundary layer thermodynamics over the western Mediterranean during a Tramontane/Mistral event

Data from a recent field campaign are used to analyze the nonstationary aspects of air‐sea heat exchanges and marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) thermodynamics over the Gulf of Lion (GoL) in connection with synoptic forcing. The data set includes measurements made from a wide range of platforms (sea‐borne, airborne, and space‐borne) as well as three‐dimensional atmospheric modeling. The analysis focuses on the 24 March 1998 Tramontane/Mistral event. It is shown that the nonstationary nature of the wind regime over the GoL was controlled by the multistage evolution of an Alpine lee cyclone over the Tyrrhenian Sea (between Sardinia and continental Italy). In the early stage (low at 1014 hPa) the Tramontane flow prevailed over the GoL. As the low deepened (1010 hPa), the prevailing wind regime shifted to a well‐established Mistral that peaked around 1200 UTC. In the afternoon the Mistral was progressively disrupted by a strengthening outflow coming from the Ligurian Sea in response to the deepening low over the Tyrrhenian Sea (1008 hPa) and the channelling induced by the presence of the Apennine range (Italy) and the Alps. In the evening the Mistral was again well established over the GoL as the depression continued to deepen (1002 hPa) but moved to the southeast, reducing the influence of outflow from the Ligurian Sea on the flow over the GoL. The air‐sea heat exchanges and the structure of the MABL over the GoL were observed to differ significantly between the established Mistral period and the disrupted Mistral period. In the latter period, surface latent and sensible heat fluxes were reduced by a factor of 2, on average. During that latter period, air‐sea moisture exchanges were mainly driven by dynamics, whereas during the former period, both winds and vertical moisture gradients controlled moisture exchanges. The MABL was shallower during the latter period (0.7 km instead of 1.2 km) because of reduced surface turbulent heat fluxes and increased wind shear at the top of the MABL in connection with the outflow from the Ligurian Sea. In the period of established Mistral, gravity waves above the MABL were observed to have an influence on the MABL structure. In the perturbed Mistral case this influence was not observed. Over the GoL the ubiquitous presence of sheltered regions (i.e., regions of reduced wind speed in the MABL) in the lee of the three major mountain ranges surrounding the GoL (namely, the Pyrénées, the Massif Central, and the Alps) was shown to have an impact on surface turbulent heat fluxes. The position of these sheltered regions, which evolved with the synoptic conditions, was the key to a correct interpretation of multiplatform surface turbulent flux measurements made over the GoL on 24 March 1998.

Summertime Marine Refractivity Conditions along Coastal California

Large vertical gradients of temperature and moisture, which are not uncommon at the top of the marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL), yield strong gradients in microwave refractivity that can result in anomalous electromagnetic (EM) propagation, including ducting wherein energy is strongly channeled horizontally. Of particular importance to surface radars and other microwave transmitters are surface-based ducts in which energy is ducted throughout the entire depth of the MABL. The Naval Research Laboratory’s Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) is used to define boundary layer structure during two coastal field experiments, and this model’s ability to forecast refractivity, including surface-based ducting, is assessed. At three marine sites, COAMPS shows considerable skill in MABL forecasts during the Variability of Coastal Atmospheric Refractivity experiment, although it contains biases for the MABL to be somewhat shallow and for the forecast duct strength, measured by the refractivity jump at MABL top, to be too weak. Nevertheless, for a total of 95 forecasts at these sites, COAMPS correctly forecasts surface-based ducting/no surface-based ducting events 82% of the time, with a false alarm rate of only 0.15. Abrupt variations in coastal MABL depth and wind speed have been observed and modeled when supercritical flow (Froude number > 1) interacts with coastal terrain that is uniformly higher than the MABL depth. COAMPS and data from the Coastal Waves 1996 (CW96) experiment conducted along the northern California coast are used to address the implications of MABL variability to the coastal EM propagation environment. Comparison of CW96 research aircraft cross sections and soundings with COAMPS forecast fields indicate that the mesoscale model captures much of the observed MABL vertical structure and horizontal variability, including the temperature inversion and moisture lapse capping the MABL, the along- and cross-shore MABL slopes, and the presence and intensity of a coastal low-level jet. Supercritical expansion fans form in the lee of Cape Blanco, Oregon, and Cape Mendocino, California, on 1 July 1996 during CW96, and COAMPS indicates the presence of a compression jump where the flow is blocked on the upwind (north) side of Cape Mendocino. In conjunction with these MABL features, the EM propagation environment also exhibits substantial alongshore variation. Stronger, near-surface-based ducting occurs in the expansion fans as the marine layer thins and accelerates; weaker, elevated ducting occurs in the blocked flow.

Mesoscale Modeling of Summertime Refractive Conditions in the Southern California Bight

Abstract Large vertical gradients of temperature and moisture, often present at the top of the atmospheric boundary layer, can result in anomalous electromagnetic propagation. Layers in which the modified refractive index M decreases with height can act to trap microwave energy depending on the frequency and angle of incidence of the signal. Here the authors examine the ability of a mesoscale model to forecast the topography of such a trapping layer and to predict temporal trends in trapping-layer structure and depth. Data from the Variability of Coastal Atmospheric Refractivity (VOCAR) experiment are used to examine the fidelity of model forecasts. The intensive observing period of VOCAR occurred from 23 August to 3 September 1993 in the Southern California bight. The mesoscale numerical weather prediction model used has a sophisticated physics package that includes a second-order closure turbulence scheme, detailed radiative flux computations, and explicit cloud physics. The impact of several specific m...

Midlevel Cyclonic Vortices Generated by Mesoseale Convective Systems

Despite the large number of convective systems that occur over the central United States every year, there are typically only a few well-defined, midlevel vortices apparent in satellite imagery after the overlying anvil debris from some convective complexes has dissipated or advected away. A climatology of mesoscale convectively generated vortex (MCV) events for 1981-1988 is presented and the synoptic setting in which the circulation becomes apparent is discussed. Proximity sounding data from numerous cases are used to examine features of the kinematic and thermodynamic setting of MCVs at various lifelycle stages defined by satellite imagery. Features ofthe large-scale environment that appear conducive to the formation and longevity of MCVS include weak flow, weak vertical shear, weak background relative vorticity, and intense horizontal and vertical moisture gradients. The rapid mesovortex generation observed can be explained by the stretching term of the vorticity equation. Most MCVs emerge from MCC-type (i.e., circular) systems, but of the cases noted (24 events over the central United States between 1981-1988) only half originated in systems that met Maddox's stringent MCC size and duration criteria. Furthermore, since several MCVs emerged from small and relatively short-lived convective systems, the background synoptic environment, in addition to the magnitude of latent heating, may provide important controlling factors in determining which MCSs will lead to documentable MCVS. The majority of MCVs (i.e., 80%) were first observed at latitudes south of 40°N. Since many convective syftms occur at latitudes north of 40°N, the paucity of MCVs in northern latitudes is not the result of a lack of convective systems.

Short-Range Forecasting and Nowcasting Using a Simple, Isentropic Prediction Model

A numerical advection model which can be run on a local computer in a real-time forecast environment is described. This isentropic forecast model provides the local forecast office with easy access to temporally and spatially detailed estimates of atmospheric temperature, moisture, and wind field changes between 12-h rawinsonde observations. Case studies are presented based on the use of the model to predict the preconvective environment in spring and summer situations. Short-term forecasts of midtropospheric static stability patterns and stability index changes are traced for several severe storm events with and without the inclusion of surface data observed during the day. Forecast images of VAS low- and midlevel moisture fields and vertical moisture gradients are compared with the observations to determine the utility of the combined model/VAS imagery as a nowcasting guide.

An evaluation of optical particle counter measurements of the dry deposition of atmospheric aerosol particles

Eddy correlation flux measurements of total atmospheric aerosol particulates were collected over a grass surface at Champaign, Illinois, in June 1982. PMS ASAS‐300A and Royco 225 optical particle counters were used as sensors to measure fluxes in four size ranges from 0.15 to 2.5 μm. The fluxes were quite variable, both in time and between sensors. The sensor signals are also quite noisy, but we demonstrate that, with certain limitations, the sensor systems are suitable for making flux measurements. This variability in the flux measurements is, in part, a result of the sensor noise and is also at times possibly the result of the transport through vertical moisture gradients, flux divergence, and changes in particulate concentration. However, frequent occurrences of upfluxes indicate it is also possibly the result of organic emissions from the surface. Ensemble average deposition velocities for each sensor were negative and quite small and, in most cases, not statistically significant. However, daily average values were often quite large and negative and showed good agreement between sensors.

Delineating Mid- and Low-Level Water Vapor Patterns in Pre-Convective Environments Using VAS Moisture Channels

Infrared and visible imagery from VAS are used to delineate mid- and lower-tropospheric moisture fields for a variety of severe storm cases in the southern and central United States. The ability of sequences of images to isolate areas of large negative vertical moisture gradients and apparent convective instability prior to the onset of convective storms is assessed. A variety of image combination procedures are used to deduce the stability fields which are then compared with the available radiosonde data. The results for several severe storm cases indicate that VAS can detect mid- and low-level mesoscale water vapor fields as distinct radiometric signals. The VAS imagery shows a strong tendency for thunderstorms to develop along the edges of bands of midlevel dryness as they overtake either preexisting or developing low-level moisture maxima. Image sequences depict the speed with which deep moist and dry layers can develop and move.

The Evolution of the Mesoscale Environment of Severe Local Storms: Preliminary Modeling Results

A mesoscale model is employed for predicting two severe weather events observed during thy 1979 SESAME field programs. Particular attention is given to the development and decay of a low-level jet, to the formation of a mesoscale convective complex (MCC) and its modification of lower- and upper-level circulation, to the formation of mesoscale regions of heavy precipitation, the intensification of surface warm and cold fronts, the formation of drylines, dynamic coupling of upper- and low-level jets, the formation of a mountain wave, and the formation and maintenance of capping inversions. A summary of the physics and parameters of a tornado outbreak and a heavy precipitation event are given for a simple bulk-PBL formulation with no heating. A ten-layer model was demonstrated to be sufficient for generating and maintaining distinct vertical gradients of temperature, moisture, and wind across low-level inversions.

Mixed Layer Moisture structure

Abstract Radiosonde data from the National Hail Research Experiment and the Wangara experiment are examined to study vertical gradients of moisture in heated boundary layers which are well-mixed in virtual potential temperature. The frequent occurrence of a significant decrease of moisture with height in the mixed layer over the high plains region of the United States seems to be related in part to rapid growth of the mixed layer into very dry air aloft and/or height variations of horizontal advection of moisture. However, the exact cause cannot be unambiguously determined from the data.