Cold Seeps Research Articles

Suppression effects of different extinguishing agents on vent gases fires from lithium-ion batteries after thermal runaway: A comprehensive experimental and numerical study

During the thermal runaway process of lithium-ion batteries, the release of vaporized electrolyte and combustible gases can lead to the formation of a jet flame, posing a significant fire or explosion risk. In order to deal with the threat of lithium-ion battery vent gas fires to the safety of energy storage power stations, it's crucial to identify effective fire extinguishing agents for lithium-ion battery systems. This study employs a combination of experimental and numerical simulation methods to assess the suppression capabilities of CO2, N2, and HFC-227ea on vent gas/air premixed flames originating from lithium-ion batteries with various cathode materials. Laminar flame speed of vent gas/air/extinguishing agent premixed flames at specific equivalence ratios were measured using a Bunsen burner device under ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions. Additionally, numerical calculations of laminar flame speed and adiabatic flame temperature were conducted using CHEMKIN-Pro, accompanied by an analysis of the chemical inhibition mechanism of HFC-227ea. The findings reveal that although HFC-227ea may slightly elevate the adiabatic flame temperature at lower equivalence ratios, its overall fire extinguishing efficacy surpasses that of CO2 and N2. These results offer valuable insights for selecting appropriate fire extinguishing agents for energy storage power stations, thereby enhancing the safety standards of energy storage systems.

In Situ High-Precision Measurement of Deep-Sea Dissolved Methane by Quartz-Enhanced Photoacoustic and Light-Induced Thermoelastic Spectroscopy.

Rapid and accurate realization of in situ analysis of deep-sea dissolved gases imperative to the study of ecological geology, oil and gas resource exploration, and global climate change. Herein, we report for the first time the deep-sea dissolved methane (CH4) in situ sensor based on quartz-enhanced photoacoustic and light-induced thermoelastic spectroscopy. The developed sensor system has a volume of φ120 mm × 430 mm and a power consumption of 7.6 W. The sensor, in the manner of frequency division multiplexing, is able to simultaneously measure the photoacoustic signals and light-induced thermoelastic signals, which can accurately correct laser-intensity induced influence on concentration. The spectral response of CH4 concentration varying from 0.01 to 5% is calibrated in detail based on the pressure and temperature in the application environment. The trend of the photoacoustic signal of CH4 at different water molecule (H2O) concentrations is investigated. An Allan variance analysis of several hours demonstrates a minimum detection limit of 0.21 ppm for the CH4 spectrometer. The sensor combined with the gas-liquid separation and enrichment unit is integrated into a compact marine standalone system. Since the specifically designed photoacoustic cell has a volume of only 1.2 mL, the time response for dissolved CH4 detection is reduced to 4 min. Furthermore, the sensor is successfully deployed in the vicinity of the "HaiMa" cold seeps at 1380 m underwater in the South China Sea, completing three consecutive days of measurements of dissolved CH4.

Benthic communities under methane gradient in the Laptev and East Siberian seas

IntroductionMethane seeps influence surrounding benthic communities in different ways from slight changes in benthic abundance and biomass to major altering the species composition.Materials and MethodsWe studied benthic communities of 14 methane seep flares in Laptev and East Siberian seas with comparative analysis of species composition and abiotic parameters at the nearby areas not affected by methane seeps. The species diversity was comparable at seep and non-seep sites varying from 3.9 to 39.6 taxa per 100 individuals and from 4.5 to 34.8 taxa per 100 individuals, correspondingly.ResultsThe Laptev Slope community corresponds with the Polychaeta-community, encircling the upper continental slope area of the entire Siberian Arctic. The Lower Shelf community described in this study apparently corresponds with the Ophiocten sericeum community identified in the shelf areas of the Kara, Laptev and East Siberian seas. The Upper Shelf community is mostly inhabited by the bivalves species such as Portlandia arctica, Ennucula tenuis and Astarte montagui communities. The Estuarine community, which is the poorest by diversity but has high values of abundance and biomass is directly influenced by the Lena River runoff in terms of lower salinities and higher sedimentation rates.DiscussionThroughout the study area, the differences between the Estuarine, Upper Shelf, Lower Shelf and Laptev Slope communities exceeded the differences between the seep and background non-seep areas. Several taxa demonstrated correlations with different environmental factors, including the latitude, depth, temperature, salinity, pH and methane content, not depending on the revealed benthic community. Eight taxa demonstrated correlations with the methane content measured at different sediment depths. Two siboglinids taxa demonstrated high abundances at stations with highest methane content deep in the sediment. At the Siberian shelf, our geochemical data for siboglinid habitats are the first to be published so far.

Determination of the Nature of Hydrocarbons in the Barents Sea (Verification of Remote Sensing Data)

Based on remote sensing data on the distribution of oil spills obtained using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery of the Sentinel-1A and Sentinel-1B satellites in 2016–2022 and the results of the analysis of aliphatic hydrocarbons (AHCs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in bottom sediments taken in 2019–2022, the nature of oil slicks in various areas of the Barents Sea has been established. It is shown that the distribution of oil slicks in coastal areas is greatly influenced by anthropogenic hydrocarbon inflow (mainly from shipping and fishing), which is confirmed by elevated AHC concentrations in coastal sediments (up to 73 μg/g) and in the composition of Corg (up to 3.6%). In the central and northern regions of the Barents Sea (station 7105, in the coordinates 75.2–75.3 N, 31.5–31.8 E), the grouping of oil slicks is due to natural seepage of oil and gas. This is confirmed by the anomalous concentration of PAHs in the lower horizons of the obtained sediment column, and their composition (the dominance of 2-methylnaphthalene, a marker of their oil genesis). At the same time, the proportion of light homologues in the composition of alkanes increased, which may indicate their formation in the sedimentary sequence.

Bioaccumulation of Chemical Elements and Organic Carbon in the Macrozoobenthic Organisms of the Laptev Sea

Within the framework of the program “Marine Ecosystems of the Siberian Arctic”, based on the materials collected during the 69th and 72nd cruises of the R/V “Akademik Mstislav Keldysh”, a study of the distribution of a group of chemical elements (As, Ba, Bi, Co, Cr, Cr, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sc, Ti, Tl, Th, V, U and Zn) and organic carbon in the mass taxa of the Laptev Sea macrozoobenthos in the fields of methane seepage and outside them was carried out. For the first time, the bioaccumulation potential (BP) was quantified, taking into account, along with the concentration of elements in organisms, their biomass. At the C-15 methane field, the population of brittle stars accumulates each of the microelements many times (up to 40 times) more than at the background station. Brittle stars and bivalves show increased BP for Ni, As, Ba, Cu, Ti, V, Mn, and Zn compared to other elements, with brittle stars having significantly higher BP. It is assumed that the increased bioaccumulation of some heavy metals and metalloids in methane seep areas is associated with a greater bioavailability of organic matter in bottom sediments. For organic carbon, the highest BP was established, which is especially expressed in the C-15 methane field. At the background station, taxa accumulate a significantly smaller (by a factor of 10) amount of carbon in their biomass. As a result of the functioning of the ground eaters, bottom sediments are enriched with organic carbon, which may indicate an important contribution of benthic organisms to the carbon cycle in the seas of the Arctic.

Involvement of Hg-bearing methane seeps in forming Ediacaran cap carbonate in South China

During the Cryogenian-Ediacaran transition, an extremely cold climate transitioned into a warm climate which was accompanied by the worldwide precipitation of cap carbonates showing striking negative carbonate carbon isotope (δ13Ccarb) anomalies. High mercury (Hg) contents up to 180 ppb have been reported from the Doushantuo cap carbonates, but the origin of Hg anomalies and its relationship with cap carbonate precipitation remain unclear. To address these issues, we measured Hg concentrations and isotopes along with total organic carbon (TOC) content and δ13Ccarb from the basal Ediacaran carbonates at the Jiulongwan section of western Hubei Province, South China. The results show that in laterally persistent intervals, Hg spikes (as high as 77 ppb) co-occur with decrease of Δ199Hg values (as low as 0.07‰), increase of δ202Hg values (−1.47‰), and conspicuous negative δ13Ccarb shifts (as low as ca. -17‰). Such Hg isotopic signature with high Hg concentration are comparable to those of natural gas hydrates and thus are ascribed to be an involvement of Hg-bearing methane seeps in precipitation of cap carbonate after melting of ice-sheets of the Marinoan glaciation (latest Cryogenian). Anaerobic oxidation of methane from hydrates via sulfate reduction may have produced bicarbonate (HCO3−), which was transformed into cap carbonate when combining with alkaline ions transported from continent to seawater via weathering process. This study provides the first evidence for Hg-bearing methane oxidation during cap carbonate precipitation.

Surprising concentrations of hydrogen and non-geological methane and carbon dioxide in the soil

Due to its potential use as a carbon-free energy resource with minimal environmental and climate impacts, natural hydrogen (H2) produced by subsurface geochemical processes is today the target of intensive research. In H2 exploration practices, bacteria are thought to swiftly consume H2 and, therefore, small near-surface concentrations of H2, even orders of 102 ppmv in soils, are considered a signal of active migration of geological gas, potentially revealing underground resources. Here, we document an extraordinary case of a widespread occurrence of H2 (up to 1 vol%), together with elevated concentrations of CH4 and CO2 (up to 51 and 27 vol%, respectively), in aerated meadow soils along Italian Alps valleys. Based on current literature, this finding would be classified as a discovery of pervasive and massive geological H2 seepage. Nevertheless, an ensemble of gas geochemical and soil microbiological analyses, including bulk and clumped CH4 isotopes, radiocarbon of CH4 and CO2, and DNA and mcrA gene quantitative polymerase chain reaction analyses, revealed that H2 was only coupled to modern microbial gas. The H2-CO2-CH4-H2S association, wet soil proximity, and the absence of other geogenic gases in soils and springs suggest that H2 derives from near-surface fermentation, rather than geological degassing. H2 concentrations up to 1 vol% in soils are not conclusive evidence of deep gas seepage. This study provides a new reference for the potential of microbial H2, CH4 and CO2 in soils, to be considered in H2 exploration guidelines and soil carbon and greenhouse-gas cycle research.

In situ loading of a pore network model for quantitative characterization and visualization of gas seepage in coal rocks

In situ loading of a pore network model for quantitative characterization and visualization of gas seepage in coal rocks

Discovery of deep-sea cold seeps from Argentina host singular trophic linkages and biodiversity

Chemosynthetic ecosystems host unique geological, biogeochemical, microbial and faunistic settings, which provide key ecosystem services for human wellbeing. In the Argentine continental margin, the existence of chemosynthetic ecosystems is still unknown. We present the first finding of chemosynthetic ecosystems in the Argentine deep sea. We assessed and compared biological and geological settings for cold seeps at Malvinas Basin and Colorado Basin and a control site (no gas) at Colorado Basin. We found two cold seeps with crater-like geomorphic features (pockmarks) of 500-m and 1000-m diameter at depths of ⁓500 m. Both cold seeps exhibited methane gas bubbles trapped at the surface of the seafloor, one exhibited seepage into the water column. Cold seeps hosted dense benthic macroinvertebrates (≥300 μm) assemblages consisting mainly of polychaetes, peracarid crustaceans and mollusks. The fauna from Argentinean seeps exhibited δ13C and δ15N stable isotope signatures indicative of multiple trophic levels, supported by both chemosynthetic and photosynthetic sources of energy. The difference in bubbling to the water column was not associated with different trophic input of chemosynthetically-derived sources of energy, suggesting that gas input is mediated by the bubbles trapped in the seafloor sediments. The presence of gas bubbles trapped in the surface sediments of the ocean floor allowed the detection of ecological and trophic characteristics of active chemosynthetic ecosystems. Integration of the sub-bottom dimension can help improve our understanding of the interactions of chemosynthetic ecosystems with seafloor fluid flow in a more reliable manner than the gas plumes. These cold seeps host significant biodiversity and ecosystem functions of the deep ocean. They fall within areas tendered for oil and gas industry development, but have not been a focus of conservation efforts to date. Information provided here can inform effective conservation actions and improve our understanding of the distribution of chemosynthetic ecosystems worldwide.

Research and application on in-situ monitoring of strata movement in submarine cold seeps area based on three-dimensional MEMS sensor network

Accurate monitoring of strata movement is crucial for understanding the geomorphological evolution of the cold seeps. However, the complex environments and inherent challenges of deep-sea operations present significant obstacles for existing observation methods. In this paper, we present a strata movement monitoring system based on a three-dimensional micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) sensor network that includes multiple short and long sensor arrays. The movement vector is reconstructed using triaxial-acceleration and cubic Hermite interpolation. In laboratory simulations with vertical and horizontal displacement of 250 mm and 100 mm, respectively, the root mean square error of the reconstruction model is 3.74 mm. Two sensor arrays were deployed and operated for 4 days in cold seeps in South China Sea, and the observed displacement showed micro-tremors, and the displacement ranges in the x- and y- directions were (−0.4 mm, 0.18 mm) and (−0.43 mm, 0.19 mm), respectively. These results affirm the feasibility of the proposed system.

Isotopically light Mo in sediments of methane seepage controlled by the benthic Fe–Mn redox shuttle process

Methane seepage has been extensively observed in various continental margin settings. It has profound effects on the marine redox environment and the molybdenum (Mo) cycles in marine sediments. Therefore, there has been much recent attention on the redox-sensitive behavior of Mo in methane seepage environments. However, the characteristics of the Mo isotope composition in the cold-seep system remain poorly understood. In this study, we performed geochemical analyses, including Mo content and isotope composition, on sediment samples (core QDN-MS6) from the “Haima” cold-seep deposit area in the South China Sea. The analysis reveals a significant concentration of authigenic pyrite in the mid-section of QDN-MS6 core (373–403 cm). Moreover, the δ34S value in this interval is notably elevated with high total sulfur/total organic carbon ratio. Additionally, the sediments in the mid-section exhibits substantial enrichment in Mo (enrichment factors of Mo ranging from 5.29 to 39.32). This implies that the sediments in the mid-section are influenced by sulfate-driven anaerobic oxidation of methane. Most notably, the sediments in the mid-section displayed distinct low δ98Mo values (with an average of −0.7‰). After careful consideration, we ruled out the influence of organic matter, an oxic environment, a weakly sulfidic environment, and incomplete removal of thiopolybdate as contributing factors. Based on δ56Fe-Fe/Al ratios, (Mo–U) enrichment factors, and As enrichment factors, we propose that the “benthic Fe-Mn redox shuttle process” is the primary cause of the observed light δ98Mo signatures in sediments. This newly identified mechanism sheds light on Mo isotope cycling in methane seepage environments and enhances our understanding of the Mo isotope cycling process.

Tidal and seasonal influence on cold seep activity and methanotroph efficiency in the North Sea

The ocean’s methane emission to the atmosphere is dominated by continental shelves where cold seeps are globally common features. Seeps emit methane into the hydrosphere, but temporal variations and controls of seep activity and the efficiency of the microbial methane filter in the water column are scarce. Here we address these knowledge gaps by measuring whole water column methane inventories and methanotrophic activity at a temporal resolution of 2 hours at a North Sea cold seep (Doggerbank) in summer and autumn. We found that bottom water methane inventories were 68% (summer) and 11% (autumn) higher during low tide compared to high tide coinciding with increased methanotrophic activity. The activity of methanotrophs was reduced during autumn when the water column was fully mixed and matched by higher methane emissions to the atmosphere. Our results show that tides are underappreciated controls on seepage and methanotrophic activity and methane sea–atmosphere fluxes.

Enrichment pattern of tungsten in sediments under methane seepage environments: Applicability as a proxy for tracing and reconstructing (paleo-)methane seepage

The release of hydrogen sulfide by sulfate-driven anaerobic oxidation of methane (SD-AOM) during methane seepage activities has a strong impact on the evolution of marine redox conditions and the cycles of redox-sensitive elements (e.g. Mo and U). Consequently, the sedimentary enrichment or depletion of these elements is often used to trace and reconstruct (paleo-)methane seepage activity. In recent years, tungsten (W) has shown promise as an indicator of marine redox changes, but its applicability to trace methane seepage activity is unknown. This study identified significant differences in the W content of sediments in methane seepage environments compared to suboxic environments not influenced by methane seepage and oxic environments in the South China Sea. The sediments subjected to methane seepage were characterized by low W contents, similar to those of euxinic Black Sea sapropels. It is believed that the sulfidic environment resulting from SD-AOM is the primary cause of W depletion in sediments subjected to methane seepage. By examining W's interaction with its twin element, Mo, we present WMo enrichment patterns in various environments. In methane seepage environment (sulfidic environments), sediments had high MoEF (> 10) and low WEF (< 2) with a high Mo/W molar ratio (> 10); in suboxic environments not influenced by methane seepage, sediments exhibited a WMo enrichment pattern similar to the UCC (the MoEF and WEF values are predominantly below 1 and 2, respectively, with a low Mo/W molar ratio, <1.5); in oxic environments (enrichment of FeMn (oxy)hydroxides), sediments exhibited high MoEF (2 < MoEF < 10) and high WEF (> 2), with a medium Mo/W molar ratio (1.5–10). This further indicates that the Mo/W molar ratio has great potential in tracing and reconstructing (paleo-)methane seepage activities.

Geological and glaciological controls of 21,700 active methane seeps in the northern Norwegian Barents sea

Geological and glaciological controls of 21,700 active methane seeps in the northern Norwegian Barents sea

Genomic characterization of the bacterial phylum Candidatus Effluviviacota, a cosmopolitan member of the global seep microbiome.

The newly discovered bacterial phylum Candidatus Effluviviacota is widespread across diverse seepage ecosystems, marine environments, and freshwater environments, with a notable preference for cold seeps. While maintaining an average abundance of approximately 1% in the global gene catalog of cold seep habitats, it has not hitherto been characterized. The metabolic versatility of Ca. Effluviviacota in anaerobic carbon, hydrogen, and metal cycling aligns with its prevalence in anoxic niches, with a preference for cold seep environments. Variations in metabolic potential between Ca. Effluvivivax and Ca. Effluvibates may contribute to shaping their respective habitat distributions.

Quantitative analysis of the upwelling behavior of methane bubbles in nature and numerical simulations

In recent years, methane gas released from the seafloor has been considered a sub-oceanic resource, and comprehending the dynamics of methane bubbles in the ocean has garnered increasing attention. Therefore, in this study, we conducted a quantitative analysis of the behavior of ascending methane bubbles with and without a hydrate layer. The bubbles were filmed at two natural gas seep sites and reproduced by numerical simulations using two-dimensional motion analysis software. The simulations were performed with gas bubbles and methane hydrate (MH)1 bubbles spouting from a nozzle in a computational domain filled with pure water to assess the validity of image analysis for in-situ data, whereas numerical models and physical properties were utilized for the current two-phase (gas-liquid) simulations. The rising velocity, size, circumference, circularity, and maximum diameter of the methane bubbles were examined to understand the effects of the MH layer on the statistical and stochastic features of ascending methane bubbles. Based on the statistics of the above variables, the gas bubbles had a higher rising velocity and smaller circularity than the MH bubbles when the bubble sizes were identical. In addition, stochastic analysis indicated that the circularity of the MH bubble was uniquely determined by their size, due to the more rigid skin of the MH bubbles compared to that of gas bubbles. Consequently, discrepancies in bubble dynamics between methane gas and MH bubbles were clarified in this study.

Pore-fracture structures and seepage flow characteristics during spontaneous coal combustion based on CT 3D reconstruction

To study the evolution characteristics of the pore-fracture structures and seepage properties of coal in the process of spontaneous combustion, a high-temperature tube furnace was used to heat the coal samples. The coal samples were scanned using Xray-CT scanning technology, and the CT 3D reconstruction technology was used to extract the 3D pore structure and equivalent pore network model of each group of coal samples. Firstly, the specific surface area and volume of pore cleavage is statistically characterized; the change rules of Ep, Et, Lc, and Cn are quantitatively analyzed. At 200 °C, the coal body produces a large number of pore fractures, the development of coal samples is more significant, and the pore-specific surface area and the number of pore throats reached their maximum value. In addition, the changes of fractal dimension, porosity, connectivity, and permeability of coal with temperature were discussed, and the best permeability of the coal was achieved at 200 °C. The connectivity and permeability were weakened with the further increase of temperature, and the structural changes had a close influence on the gas seepage pressure and seepage flow rate. The results of the study provide important engineering guidance for deepening fire prevention in coalfields.

Analisa Cacat Produk Dan Kerusakan Mold Pada Proses Injection Molding Dan Tindakan Perbaikan Di PT. Patco Elektronik Teknologi

This study examines product defects and mold damage in the injection molding process and corrective actions at PT. Patco Elektronik Teknologi. This type of research is field research with a qualitative approach. Researchers use primary and secondary data sources. Data collection techniques through observation, interviews, and documents related to product defects and mold damage in the injection molding process and corrective actions. The data were analyzed using data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing methods. The results of the study show that injection molding has many advantages when compared to other plastic manufacturing methods, but in the process there are various defects in the plastic products produced. Based on the FMEA analysis, a number of product defects occur due to several factors, such as Bending, Gas Mark, Silver, Flash, Under Cut, Crack, Flow Mark, Scratches, Burn Mark, and Short Mold. Gas Mark has the highest risk priority number (RPN) value of 75. The problem of defects due to gas marks occurs in the housing panel components produced by PT. Patco Elektronik Teknologi. The company took corrective action NG Gas Mark on the housing panel product by means of mold maintenance and gas vent making by the mold shop for the cavity and ejector pin parts. After the gas vent making process was carried out, defects due to gas marks were greatly reduced in the housing panel products produced by PT. Patco.

Promethearchaeum syntrophicum gen. nov., sp. nov., an anaerobic, obligately syntrophic archaeon, the first isolate of the lineage 'Asgard' archaea, and proposal of the new archaeal phylum Promethearchaeota phyl. nov. and kingdom Promethearchaeati regn. nov.

An anaerobic, mesophilic, syntrophic, archaeon strain MK-D1T, was isolated as a pure co-culture with Methanogenium sp. strain MK-MG from deep-sea methane seep sediment. This organism is, to our knowledge, the first cultured representative of 'Asgard' archaea, an archaeal group closely related to eukaryotes. Here, we describe the detailed physiology and phylogeny of MK-D1T and propose Promethearchaeum syntrophicum gen. nov., sp. nov. to accommodate this strain. Cells were non-motile, small cocci, approximately 300-750 nm in diameter and produced membrane vesicles, chains of blebs and membrane-based protrusions. MK-D1T grew at 4-30 °C with optimum growth at 20 °C. The strain grew chemoorganotrophically with amino acids, peptides and yeast extract with obligate dependence on syntrophy with H2-/formate-utilizing organisms. MK-D1T showed the fastest growth and highest maximum cell yield when grown with yeast extract as the substrate: approximately 3 months to full growth, reaching up to 6.7×106 16S rRNA gene copies ml-1. MK-D1T had a circular 4.32 Mb chromosome with a DNA G+C content of 31.1 mol%. The results of phylogenetic analyses of the 16S rRNA gene and conserved marker proteins indicated that the strain is affiliated with 'Asgard' archaea and more specifically DHVC1/DSAG/MBG-B and 'Lokiarchaeota'/'Lokiarchaeia'. On the basis of the results of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, the most closely related isolated relatives were Infirmifilum lucidum 3507LTT (76.09 %) and Methanothermobacter tenebrarum RMAST (77.45 %) and the closest relative in enrichment culture was Candidatus 'Lokiarchaeum ossiferum' (95.39 %). The type strain of the type species is MK-D1T (JCM 39240T and JAMSTEC no. 115508). We propose the associated family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom as Promethearchaeaceae fam. nov., Promethearchaeales ord. nov., Promethearchaeia class. nov., Promethearchaeota phyl. nov., and Promethearchaeati regn. nov., respectively. These are in accordance with ICNP Rules 8 and 22 for nomenclature, Rule 30(3)(b) for validation and maintenance of the type strain, and Rule 31a for description as a member of an unambiguous syntrophic association.

Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation of Combustion Efficiency for Full-Size Upstream Flare Experiments

Methane emissions from oil and gas production can occur throughout the value chain, but for many producers, one of the most significant sources is flaring. Understanding the influence of the operating conditions and the environmental factors the combustion efficiency and destruction and removal efficiency (CE/DRE) of flares is essential if their role in methane emissions, a potent but short-lived greenhouse gas, is to be better understood and mitigated. An industry-scale experimental study was focused on the emissions of un-assisted flares commonly encountered in upstream oil and gas production. This paper simulates two un-assisted flare tips combustions by using the commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software package Fluent 21R2 to augment the physical experimental testing. Two three-dimensional (3D) flare tips models are built, and the k-omega SST turbulence model and flamelet generated manifold (FGM) combustion model are applied to simulate flaring combustion. The CFD model is first validated against full-scale industry flare tests that use extractive sampling of the combustion plume. CFD results are in good agreement with measured results when the vent gas net heating value (NHV) is greater than 300 BTU/SCF. Greater uncertainty exists for both CFD results and measured data if the NHV is less than 300 BTU/SCF. Then, the CFD model is extended to include high crosswind states up to 50 m/s that cannot be readily or safely examined empirically. The results emphasize the critical role of the vent gas net heating value (NHV) on flare combustion and crosswind in reducing the CE. The comparison helps pave the way for further use of CFD simulation to improve flare designs and modes of operation and supports the use of parametric models to track and report methane losses from flaring.