Vavuniya District Research Articles

Writing in the Ruins of Mullivaikal: Shobasakthi’s Box: A Story Book

The Sri Lankan-born diaspora writer Shobasakthi’s novel is about a Dalit village in Mullaitivu, Vavuniya District after the Mullivaikal war. The Periya Pallan Kulam villagers carry not only the scars from Mullivaikal, where the state had used all its might on bombing these poor peasants, but also a long memory of caste-based depredations by their neighbors, the elite-caste Vellalars of Vellam Murippu. I argue that in writing a novel about state-sanctioned dispossession of a people, Shobasakthi writes a caste novel. Box was published in Tamil in 2015; my English translation is forthcoming. My essay is in two parts: the first part discusses the caste politics of Sri Lankan Northern Tamil country as exemplified by the Vellalar caste-identified Village Officer in his betrayal of Periya Pallan Kulam to the state. In the second section, I study closely the mimetic theater method employed by Periya Pallan Kulam in telling its unsayable truth about their suffering.

Relationship of Physico-chemical Properties of Water with Phytoplankton Abundance in Peraru Village Tank in Vavuniya District

The village tank cascade system, predominantly found in the Vavuniya district, satisfies the water demand for agriculture and domestic needs considerably. Among them, the Peraru village tank lies in a cascade line in the Vavuniya district. The water resource of Peraru village reservoir is treated by the National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Vavuniya, and distributed to the local public. As Peraru a drinking water fountain, the study of phytoplankton and water quality is important. The study's objective was to identify the phytoplankton and estimate the abundance of phytoplankton in the Peraru village tank along with the Physico-chemical characteristics of water. A phytoplankton sampling was done by using plankton net at the selected three locations of Peraru village reservoir weekly from March to April 2021. Totally, 24 samples were analyzed during the study period. Simultaneously, water samples were also collected at each site to determine dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, pH, turbidity, temperature, nitrate, and phosphate concentrations. Identification of phytoplankton was made based on standard guides, and the abundances of phytoplankton were estimated using Sedgewick- rafter counting cells. The results of Physico- chemical parameters were statistically tested using ANOVA and found correlations between the abundance of phytoplankton and Physico-chemical parameters. Phylum Bacillariophyta and genus Aulacoseira were the dominant phylum and genus in the Peraru village tank. Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Electrical Conductivity (EC), nitrate, and phosphate positively influenced the abundance of phytoplankton in the Peraru village tank, while turbidity negatively affected the same. 
 Keywords: Phytoplankton abundance, Correlation, Physico-chemical parameters

Abundance and diversity of phytoplankton and zooplankton in selected village tanks in Vavuniya, Sri Lanka

The abundance and diversity of planktons in selected village tanks namely Peraru, Nochchimoddai and Mamaduwa in the Vavuniya district were studied from March to April, 2021. The objectives of the study were to identify the phyto- and zooplanktons, and to estimate their abundance and diversity in the selected village tanks. Planktons were sampled weekly using a plankton net. Based on the morphological features, samples were initially identified up to the genus level using standard keys and their respective abundance was estimated using Sedgewick- rafter counting cell. Simultaneously, water samples were also collected at each location to determine the water quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, pH, turbidity, temperature, and, nitrate and phosphate concentrations. The results showed that there were 16 genera of Chlorophyceae, six genera of Bacillariophyceae and seven genera of Cyanophyceae, while three species of Copepods, one species of Cladocerans and 10 species of Rotifers were identified. The dominant phytoplanktons belonged to Bacillariophyceae, and represented about 50% of total population of phytoplanktons while Cyanophyceae as the least abundant. Copepods were dominant in Peraru and Nochchimoddai tanks, representing more than 50% of the total zooplankton population while Rotifers were dominant in Mamaduwa village tank, with a 58% of total zooplankton population.

Farmers’ prioritization of dairy development strategies in Vavuniya district, Sri Lanka

This study examines dairy farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for dairy development strategies in the Vavuniya district of Sri Lanka. Yeo hundred dairy farmers from Vavuniya district were randomly selected for this study. The choice research approach was applied, and conditional logit models were developed. The results of the study show that farmers are willing to pay for all the selected development strategies. Farmers prioritize the development strategies as follows: training in silage making, morning and evening milk collection, the establishment of milk collection centres within 2 km of dairy farms, and doubling the success rate of artificial insemination. Farmers’ WTP for training in silage making is higher than their WTP for other dairy development strategies. Female farmers’ WTP for training in silage making is greater than male farmers’ WTP for the same training. Farmers' income and education level each have a positive effect on their WTP for training in silage making, and their education level positively influences their WTP for morning and evening milk collection. The results of this study will assist policymakers in developing appropriate dairy development strategies and charges for the services offered.

Antidiabetic vegetables presently traded in Sri Lanka's Vavuniya District

Diabetes affected about 537 million adults aged 20 to 79 in 2021. Higher vegetable intake helps to manage type 2 diabetes mellitus. Thus, this research aimed to recognize and record the vegetable species currently sold in Sri Lanka's Vavuniya District. At least three fieldwork visits were made between January 2019 and January 2022 to each of the Vavuniya District's major market sites, as well as the neighboring vegetable shops and street stalls. Until June 2022, published relevant research papers were searched in the Web of Science, PubMed, and ScienceDirect databases for the recorded vegetable species in this study to assess the antidiabetic scientific proof. This study recognized and recorded 72 vegetable species from 25 families. Consequently, a study of the literature on 65 vegetable species found that most of the vegetable species had in vivo (37%), followed by clinical (15%) and in vitro (14%) scientific evidence, and six antidiabetic active substances were isolated from the analyzed vegetable species. This work establishes the foundation for additional studies on the fruit species traded in Vavuniya District.

Assessment of Forest Cover Changes in Vavuniya District, Sri Lanka: Implications for the Establishment of Subnational Forest Reference Emission Level

Assessment of forest cover changes is required to establish the forest reference emission level (FREL) at any scale. Due to civil conflict, such assessments have not yet been undertaken in Sri Lanka, especially in the conflict zone. Here, we assessed the forest cover changes in Vavuniya District, Sri Lanka, from 2001 to 2020, using a combination of the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform and the phenology-based threshold classification (PBTC) method. Landsat 5 TM data for 2001, 2006, and 2010, and Landsat 8 OLI data for 2016 and 2020 were used to classify forest cover by categories, and their related changes could be assessed by four categories, namely dry monsoon forest, open forest, other lands, and water bodies. With an overall average accuracy of 87% and an average kappa coefficient of 0.83, forest cover was estimated at 57.6% of the total land area in 2020. There was an increase of 0.46% per annum for the entire district between 2001 and 2010, but a drastic loss of 0.60% per year was observed between 2010 and 2020. Specifically, the dry monsoon forest lost 0.30%, but open forest gained 3.62% annually over the same period. Loss and gain of forest cover resulted in carbon emissions and removals of 165,306.6 MgCO2 and 24,064.5 MgCO2 annually, respectively, over the same period. Our findings could be used to set the baseline trend of deforestation, based on which, a subnational forest reference emission level can be established as an emission benchmark, against which comparisons of carbon emissions following the implementation of REDD+ activities can be made, and result-based payment can be claimed under the Paris Agreement.

Preliminary Study on Existing Scenario of Selected Soil Properties in Cheddikulum Grama Niladhari Division Vavuniya District, Sri Lanka

The productivity of the soil has changed into the worst condition knowingly or unknowingly by anthropogenic activities as well as natural phenomena. The study was conducted to quantify selected soil properties in Cheddikulum Grama Niladhari division, Vavuniya District and find reclaim the problem soil and make suggestions to cultivate the crop variety suitable for the existing soil properties since this area is a recently rehabilitated area. Fifty composite samples were selected for the research using the stratified random sampling method. Stratification was based on the type of land cover, and following land cover patterns were identified agriculture land patches, forest patches, and grassland patches. Soils were collected from top to 30 cm depth (root zone) using a core sampler, and subsamples were collected to obtain composite samples. Soil samples were analyzed for pH, EC, organic matter content, total nitrogen, exchangeable potassium, and available phosphorous. 14.8% of agricultural land area was acidic soil and 4.7% alkaline soil. 15.3% of agricultural land area was identified as saline soil. 67.11% of agricultural lands contain more phosphorous concentration than the optimum range. 4.7% of agricultural lands contain higher potassium concentrations than the optimum range. 94% of forest lands and 100% of grasslands contains phosphorous concentration higher than the optimum range. But forest lands showed a lower level of potassium concentration. 23.6% of grasslands contain higher potassium than the optimum level. Organic matter ranged between 0.01% to 5.43% in agricultural lands where 82% of total nitrogen concentrations were the optimum level. Agriculture practices lead to change in the soil; hence identified soil problems should be reclaimed in order to maintain the fertility of the soil for sustainable production. Proper management of soil can be a better solution for supporting the successful agricultural activity of the community in the future and socio-economic development of this region and need to be adhering to crop variety selection and soil reclamation practices.
 Keywords: Productivity, Soil problems, Soil reclamation

Exploring the village tank cascade systems (VTCSs) in Vavuniya district, Sri Lanka

Abstract An attempt was made to identify, validate the village tank cascade systems (VTCSs) and study the water flow from one village tank to another in each VTCS in the eight Agrarian Service Centre (ASC) divisions in the Vavuniya district from October 2017 to December 2018. VTCS contribute a significant share of available water resources for the livelihoods of households in the Vavuniya district. The 1:10,000 topographic map of the Survey Department, satellite images and the digital elevation model were used to identify the cascades and flow direction map for the study area using ArcGIS 10.2.2. Among 756 village tanks in the district, 80 VTCSs comprising 514 village tanks were identified, and only 69 cascades were validated in the field. In addition, this study identified 111 isolated village tanks without connecting with other village tanks and 131 abandoned village tanks. Further investigation is recommended to explore the possibilities of increasing the cascade areas in the study area by connecting isolated tanks with VTCSs. Initiation taken towards rehabilitation of cascades would enhance the livelihood of farm households in the Vavuniya district and lead to sustainable water resource management.

Does green innovative practices matter? the effect of green innovation on green entrepreneurship sustainability

Green entrepreneurs have been realized as critical motorists for a transition to a green economy. There has been a growing interest in developing a ‘green’ economy as a means of reconciling economic development and the environment. Hence, green entrepreneurs are exchanging fluctuating stiffnesses between their business activities, environmental philosophies, and broader contexts at the intertwine between the green economy and the mainstream economy. However, research on green innovation and green entrepreneurship has been finite focused and remained agnostic in Sri Lankan context.More specifically, entrepreneurs in Vavuniya district rigorously encountering colossal problems in green innovation (e.g. green packing, green marketing). In fact, there is an urge to foster green innovative practices to reap business success. Hence, the researchers selected entrepreneurs in Vavuniya district. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the effect of green innovation (innovative practices) on green entrepreneurship sustainability. Data were gleaned from purposively chosen entrepreneurs in Vavuniya district with in-depth interviews. The results revealedthat most informants disclosed that entrepreneurs do not appear to be prepared to encounter the challenges or take unforeseen risks by capitalizing in green business and green innovative practices. Ironically the government and other departments and educational institutions (colleges and universities) do not recognize their role and fail to support green entrepreneurship development.

A study of performance appraisal of people'S bank & Bank of Ceylon in Vavuniya in Sri Lanka

This research is based on “Performance Appraisal system of People's bank and bank Of Ceylon in vavuniya District In the competitive world, in any organization employees is very important factors in order to achieve goals and objectives of the organization. So that nowadays the firms need employees who are committed to their firms. Performance Appraisal system are used by the employers and organization to make desirable changes in employee motivation and customer satisfaction. Here we will consider correct appraisal by the manager, Better communication between manager and employees, appropriateappraisal, Employee's satisfaction, Achievement of goals Higher performances, co-operation, willingness of responsibility, challenging work and growth in job areas employee motivation. we have reached the conclusion that high level of performance Appraisal system leads to high level employee motivation and customer satisfaction. We hope this research would benefits the banks as well as other organization. Eventually we believe that this research would provide awareness to develop knowledge in applying theories.

Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Service Quality in Banking Sector, Vavuniya District

Purpose: The purposes of this research is to analyze the impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on the Service Quality in the Banks in Vavuniya District, Sri Lanka.
 Design/Methodology/Approach: Closed questionnaires were used for measuring the Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and Service Quality of banking sector. Questionnaire were distributed and collected in Vavuniya district. The conclusion were drawn from Regression analysis, ANOVAs and Pearson correlation.
 Findings: Result revealed that although Organizational Citizenship Behaviour had significantly positive relationship with Service Quality it had not exerted significant impact on Service Quality.
 Practical implication: The research has implications in the efforts taken by the Banks in improving the service quality and organizational performance through employees.
 Originality/ value: The bank managers , government and the other stakeholders are expected to realize the importance of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and build a good customer relationship and improve the service quality in the current context of emerging many new financial institutions.

Credit Worthiness and Repayment Performance Among Small – Holder Farmers in Sri Lanka: Application of Probit Model

The objective of the study is to examine the factors which determine the credit worthiness and loan repayment performance among the small-holder farmers in Vavuniya district in Sri Lanka. A sample of 113 small –holder agricultural loan borrowers from five villages who get the loans from SANASA TCCS served as the respondents in the study. A set of structured questionnaire was used to collect the primary data from the respondents who lives in the five villages located in Marukkarambali GS division in Vavuniya district, Sri Lanka during the period of 2018/2019. The dependent variable is the credit worthiness measured as binary variables where it takes as one for defaulters and zero for non - defaulters and the selected demographic characters, farming characters and farmers’ attributes were taken as explanatory variables in the study. To identify the above characters on the credit worthiness of the farmers’ descriptive statistics, and binary probit model were employed. The results of the descriptive statistics revealed that, 43.4% of the respondents belonged to the defaulters while 56.6% of them belonged to the non – defaulters in the study. Estimated results of the probit model suggest that among the demographic characteristics, age of the farmers, levels of education, number of family members positively influenced the loan repayment performance of smallholder farmers, while among farming characters, income, farm size, land ownership, farming experience, off-farm activities, purpose of loan and possibility of crop failure were positively impact on credit worthiness and repayment performance at different significant levels. On the other hand, knowledge about the loan and responsible guarantors were the major factors of farmers’ attributes influencing the repayment performance in the study. The overall findings of the study may help to the farmers as well as to the micro finance institutions to predict the repayment behaviour of the new loan applicants and to make the decision to grant loans in future.

Foraging Behaviour based Management Strategy to Minimize Crop Damage Caused by Indian Pea Fowl (Pavo cristatus)

Gradual increase of Indian peafowl population across low country dry zone of Sri Lanka and expansion of their distribution throughout the country caused many problems. Their omnivorous feeding habit leads to economic loss to the farmers. Objectives of the study were to investigate a management strategy based on the foraging behaviour (FB) to minimize crop damage and to understand the cultural significance in controlling them. A survey was conducted in 4 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions in Vavuniya district based on a structured type questionnaire (n=160). Foraging behaviour was studied for 3 months covering morning (006-008 hrs), mid-day (11:30-13:30 hrs) and evening (1600- 1800 hrs) by direct visual scans of male, female and juvenile bird categories. There were significant differences (p<0.05) between the time of peafowl attack, the sex, the stage of peafowl with type of plant damaged. Peak activity (63%) was recorded during morning while it was 36% in the evening and 1% during mid-day. The food eaten is diverse and consisted of a mixture of plant and animal matter that includes variety of plants, beetles, snakes, snails, worms etc. in which bulk was consisted of plant parts. Rice (83.5%), cereals (62.5), spicy crops (33%) and leafy vegetables (19.5%), plantation crops (14%), vegetables (12.5 %), legumes (11%) were most affected by peafowl while less on tubers (6%). Young peafowl mostly attack (90%) lower level and adults mostly attack (67%) upper level vegetation. Furthermore, the other problems caused by peafowl recorded were as parasite spreader (40%), noisy problem (39.50%), damage vehicles (29.7%) and damage houses (6.5%). Irrespective of the ethnic group, all were respected peafowl due to religious reasons. Respondents were suggested chasing out (63.50%), hitting (9.50%), trapping (2.25%) and death (1%) as controlling measures. It is concluded that fixing water sprinklers and operate them in the morning along with cultivation of replant plants around boundaries of crops can be suggested as management strategy to minimize crop damage. Meantime it is suggested conserving them in forests by maintaining large tracts in scrub forests and associated grasslands with water bodies.

Identification of artificial groundwater recharge zones in Vavuniya district using remote sensing and GIS

Ground water is a major source for domestic and irrigation purposes in Sri Lanka and plays a crucial role to human life and economic activity. With rapid growth of population and urbanization water requirements for drinking and other purposes are dramatically increasing. The over extraction and unplanned development of ground water resources have led to considerable depletion of water resources. Artificial recharge is the practice of increasing the amount of water that enters groundwater reservoir by artificial means of planned human activity. The distribution and recharge of groundwater in the country varies significantly depending on geology, rainfall and geomorphology. The objective of this study was to identify artificial recharge potential. This study was conducted in Vavuniya district since the water shortage was observed over the years. Geomorphology, geology, soil, land use and stream data along with Landsat 7 ETM+ and DEM images were utilized to develop the relevant thematic layers such as geology, geomorphology, soil, slope, lineament density, land use and stream density by integrating GIS (Geographic Information System) and image processing techniques. The resultant thematic layers were utilized to prepare the groundwater recharge maps of the area through a weighted overlay method in a GIS platform. The results revealed that the artificial recharge was high in Southern part of the study area. Further the area has significant groundwater recharge zones which can be utilized for a sustainable ground water management system.

Health status of returning refugees, internally displaced persons, and the host community in a post-conflict district in northern Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional survey

BackgroundAlthough the adverse impacts of conflict-driven displacement on health are well-documented, less is known about how health status and associated risk factors differ according to displacement experience. This study quantifies health status and quality of life among returning refugees, internally displaced persons, and the host community in a post-conflict district in Northern Sri Lanka, and explores associated risk factors.MethodsWe analysed data collected through a household survey (n = 570) in Vavuniya district, Sri Lanka. The effect of displacement status and other risk factors on perceived quality of life as estimated from the 36-item Short Form Questionnaire, mental health status from 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire, and self-reported chronic disease status were examined using univariable analyses and multivariable regressions.ResultsWe found strong evidence that perceived quality of life was significantly lower for internally displaced persons than for the host community and returning refugees, after adjusting for covariates. Both mental health status and chronic disease status did not vary remarkably among the groups, suggesting that other risk factors might be more important determinants of these outcomes.ConclusionsOur study provides important insights into the overall health and well-being of the different displaced sub-populations in a post-conflict setting. Findings reinforce existing evidence on the relationship between displacement and health but also highlight gaps in research on the long-term health effects of prolonged displacement. Understanding the heterogeneity of conflict-affected populations has important implications for effective and equitable humanitarian service delivery in a post-conflict setting.

Skeletal fluorosis in Vavuniya District: an observational study

The WHO recommended safe upper limit for fluoride in drinking water is 1.5 mg/l. Groundwater sources in many parts of Sri Lanka often exceed this limit. The high fluoride content of groundwater and high environmental temperatures in Vavuniya District predispose to pre-skeletal fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis in adults. To identify residents of Vavuniya District with clinical features of pre-skeletal and skeletal fluorosis; to describe their clinical, biochemical and radiographic features; to determine the fluoride content of blood and urine in individuals with established diagnoses, and of their drinking water. In 98 volunteers we detected 60 with clinical features of pre-skeletal and skeletal fluorosis. Clinical examination, biochemical and radiographic investigations were performed. Forty four with confounding factors were excluded. The balance 16 had radiographic investigation for fluoride bone disease, and assessment of clinical features for pre-skeletal fluorosis. The radiographic criteria of skeletal fluorosis were trabecular haziness, osteosclerosis, osteophytes, cortical thickening and ligamentous or muscle attachment ossification. All 16 had “spot” samples of 15 ml of venous blood taken for biochemical tests and fluoride estimation; and 30 ml of urine, and water from 16 dug wells for fluoride. The 16 selected (11 males) had BMI between 20.6 and 31.9 kg/m2, and were between 22 and 84 years (x̅ = 59.9 + 20.4). They used water from domestic dug wells for drinking. All had adequate renal function. All serum and urine samples had raised fluoride levels way above the reference ranges for serum (0.02 – 0.18 mg/l) and urine (0.6 – 2.0 mg/l). The 16 water samples showed a mean fluoride content of 2.90 +0.93 mg/l. In a cohort of 60 individuals in Vavuniya with symptoms suggestive of skeletal fluoride toxicity, 6 had skeletal fluorosis, 10 had pre-skeletal fluorosis, and groundwater sources had fluoride levels much higher than WHO recommended upper limit for drinking water. Residents in Vavuniya are predisposed to pre-skeletal and skeletal fluorosis. All 16 had been misdiagnosed as various types of arthritis.

Abstract need to be edited–Integrated approach to rehabilitation of people with physical disabilities in northern province of Sri Lanka

It is identified that in Sri Lanka 87 physical disable patients living per capita of 1000. According to 2015 survey report, 20000 physically disabled persons needed rehabilitation care service in Northern Province. There is only one public sector rehabilitation centre in Vavuniya district serving for entire Northern Province in Sri Lanka. Private sector for rehabilitation service is not yet developed because most of the patients with physical disabilities are living in very low socioeconomic status. The aim of this study on giving policy recommendation on integrating sectors on developing fair rehabilitation services for Northern Province and it will elicit the directions to find untapped resources into rehabilitation service development in Northern Province. This is a qualitative study, having convenient judgmental sampling techniques to include the stakeholders from public, private, non-profit sectors and patients with disability. All the interviews are based on open-end questions and interviews are conducted by main researcher. From this study 5 main thematic areas are identified as results. Those are; need on integration of sectors, need to have policy on handling integration, developing human resources into rehabilitation care, sustain rehabilitation care facilities by developing public sector within a time frame, gathering financial resources and advanced technologies into rehabilitation care services Northern Province of Sri Lanka. Integrated private(profit/non-profit) and public system is much more helpful for developing rehab litation health care for war affected developing countries perspective. ventures for integration of sectors in rehabilitation services identified as infrastructure maintenance, infrastructure development investments, material supply and fleet management. It is recommended to integrate non-profit organizations than private profit services into war affected public rehabilitation care services.

High prevalence of dental fluorosis among schoolchildren in three villages in Vavuniya District: an observational study

Studies of groundwater sources in Sri Lanka show that in the entire Northern, North Central, Uva and Eastern Provinces, and also in a large area of the North Western Province, groundwater fluoride content is within the range 1.0 mg/l and 3.0 mg/l. The WHO recommended safe upper limit of fluoride for drinking water is 1.5 mg/l. Our objective was to determine the prevalence and degree of dental fluorosis in a cohort of schoolchildren in Sinnasippikulam in Vavuniya District, the fluoride content in their serum and urine, and fluoride levels in drinking water in dug wells of the area. Invitations in Tamil and Sinhala were sent to all households by courier. Demographic information and oral hygiene practices of 307 responsive children were recorded by interviewing children and their mothers. Detailed clinical examinations were performed according to WHO basic methods, with some modifications. Assessment of dental fluorosis in the children was done according to Dean’s Index codes and criteria. We found drinking water sources (dug wells) in Sinnasippikulam (n= 82) to have a high mean concentration of fluoride ( x̄ 1.58+ 0.69 mg/l). Of 307 children examined, 224 (72.9%) had clinical evidence of dental fluorosis of varying degrees of severity. The mean fluoride level in serum of schoolchildren was 0.198 mg/l (SD + 0.074; S.E.M. 0.013), and in their urine, 1.44 mg/l (SD + 0.59; SEM 0.11). Our results show that harmful levels of fluoride are extremely common in groundwater sources in the study area, and consequently, dental fluorosis is highly endemic (72.9%) among resident schoolchildren.

Early growth of rubber in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka: an investigation in Vavuniya District

In view of supporting the rubber product manufacturing sector in Sri Lanka and providing stable income for the peasant community, rubber cultivation is in the process of expanding to the drier regions of the country. Under this programme, rubber was introduced to the Northern region (Dry Zone) in 2010 with a tentative set of agronomic protocols. The present study showed that rubber cultivated in this region under smallholder conditions together with irrigated short term crops, has shown reasonable growth with an average annual girth expansion rate of 8.6cm. A growth curve for the immature phase of rubber was established for the first time for the dry zone of Sri Lanka. Despite some adverse effects of dry weather on photosynthesis and associated physiological parameters, no evidence of permanent damages to photosynthetic apparatus was recorded. Further actions to be taken in the expansion process of rubber cultivation in this region are also discussed.

Assessment of Women participation in Agriculture in Vavuniya district, Sri Lanka

An attempt was made to assess the women contribution towards agriculture in Vavuniya district, Sri Lanka. 60 farm family households' women were randomly selected from rural and urban area of Kovilkulam AI region of Vavuniya district in Sri Lanka and the data were collected by constructed questionnaire. The objectives of this study are to identify the factors contributing women participation in agriculture, to identify the constraints faced by the women in participating agriculture and to evaluate the women participation in decision making activity in agriculture. Minitab 15 and MS excel were used for data analysis. The level of women participation in agricultural activities was found out using chi-square test and the factors contributing for women participation in agricultural activities were identified using multiple regression analysis in urban and rural areas separately (α=0.05). The results revealed that 90% of the rural women respondents and 50% of the urban respondents participated in the agricultural activities which is a significant difference. The mean values of women participation in agricultural activities in urban and rural areas were 77 hours and 836 hours per annum respectively. The multiple regression model for women participation in urban area found that the participation of women negatively correlated with status of employment, age and education level (p=0.000). In rural area, age and educational level were negatively influencing on women participation in agricultural activities (p=0.000). R-square values of fitted regression models were 72 % and 91% in urban and rural area respectively 72% and 91% variation in respective women participation were explained by these models. The obstacles for the women in participation in agricultural activities were reported as lack of knowledge and training in agriculture field, family burden, cultural and social barriers and physical constraints. 60% of women from rural areas and 90% of women from urban areas were involved in decision making especially in the selection of crops and varieties for planting and livestock rearing. Enhancing the awareness and the technical knowledge to the women in the field of agriculture would contribute to increase income from agriculture at household level, district level and finally at national level. Int. J. Soc. Sc. Manage. Vol. 3, Issue-3: 159-162