Vapor Pressure Deficit Conditions Research Articles

Soil water content and vapor pressure deficit affect ecosystem water use efficiency through different pathways

Ecosystem water use efficiency (WUE) quantifies the amount of carbon assimilated per unit of water consumed and elucidates the trade-off between water loss and carbon gain at the ecosystem level. Numerous studies have highlighted the significant impact of low soil water content (SWC) and high vapor pressure deficit (VPD) on WUE. However, the underlying mechanisms driving these effects differ markedly. The intensifying coupling between land and atmosphere accentuates the distinctive co-occurrence of low SWC and high VPD, posing challenges in disentangling the respective influences of these two water stressors. Consequently, a clear understanding of the independent responses of ecosystem WUE to SWC and VPD remains elusive. Using meteorological and flux data from FLUXNET’s eddy-covariance sites, we investigated the impact of SWC and VPD on ecosystem carbon–water fluxes and proposed potential pathways through which SWC and VPD influence WUE. We deconstructed WUE into intrinsic WUE of vegetation (GPP/T) and the ratio of transpiration to evapotranspiration (T/ET). Our findings revealed that WUE exhibited greater sensitivity to VPD dynamics compared to SWC. The sensitivity of WUE to SWC stemmed from the responsiveness of T/ET to SWC, especially under high VPD conditions. Conversely, the sensitivity of WUE to VPD emanated from the impact on GPP/T. SWC and VPD exerted distinct effects on ecosystem WUE through different pathways.

Exploring genotypic diversity in sorghum breeding lines for water‐saving traits to enhance drought adaptation during the post‐rainy season

AbstractSorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], a crucial staple crop in South Asia and sub‐Saharan Africa, faces challenges amid increasing climate variability. Post‐rainy sorghum serves as a dominant food and fodder crop in India. Aligned with International Crops Research Institute for the Semi‐Arid Tropics's post‐rainy sorghum product profile, this research extensively characterizes sorghum lines, emphasizing the traits vital for post‐rainy drought adaptation in hybrid parents. We examined genotypic differences and trait correlations in 25 sorghum hybrid parents and varieties (B line for seed parent, R line for restorer, and check for varieties) through atmospheric and soil drought experiments. Results from atmospheric drought experiments revealed significant variation in transpiration rate (TR) under high vapor pressure deficit (VPD), with certain lines showing limited TR (BTX623 and ICSR 21002), while others exhibited high TR. In soil drought experiments, transpiration decline occurred at fractions of transpirable soil water ranging between 0.38 (ICSR 174) and 0.65 (40162 and ICSR 21005). R lines consistently displayed superior plant growth, water use, and biomass compared to B lines. Transpiration efficiency (TE) and total biomass showed positive correlations (r2 = 0.69) in well‐watered and (r2 = 0.45) in water‐stressed conditions. Most R lines displayed higher biomass and TE. Genotypes exhibiting enhanced vigor and limited TR in high VPD conditions and high TE hold potential for enhancing drought adaptation in post‐rainy sorghum. Notably, genotypes with higher biomass, lower TR, and increased TE within both R and B line groups represent valuable genetic resources for enhancing sorghum crops, post‐rainy sorghum adaptation to water deficit.

Control of vapor pressure deficit (VPD) in micro-plant factory (McPF) to enhanced spinach microgreens growth

Harnessing the power of Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD) control, this novel research illuminates a pathway to enhanced plant growth and yield within Micro-Plant Factory (McPF) and Urban Mini-Plant Factory (UMPF) environments. The research focused on the growth parameters of spinach microgreens, with the experimental data originating from each system's upper, central, and lower shelves. Results indicated significantly enhanced plant height and dry weight on the central shelves, attributed to optimal VPD control. Growth analysis also revealed higher relative growth rates (RGR) under tightly managed VPD conditions on the central shelves, even amidst varying environmental parameters. Most notably, effective VPD control translated these growth metrics into increased yields. For instance, a 71 % and 66 % increase in final plant dry weight over the lower and upper shelves was noted. These advances were mirrored in the plant height, which also saw 57 % and 103 % growth. Overall, the findings underscore the critical role of VPD control in plant growth and yield enhancement within structured environments like McPF and UMPF, offering significant insights for future research in manipulating VPD for optimal plant growth and productivity.

Evaluation of Serrano Pepper Crops Growth under Controlled Conditions of Vapor Pressure Deficit in a Pilot-Scale Hydroponic Greenhouse

Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) has become an important field of study in recent years. The objective of this research is to evaluate the growth rate of the serrano pepper crop under controlled conditions of vapor pressure deficit in a pilot-scale hydroponic greenhouse. The controlled conditions were generated with the development of a control system composed of a non-mixed crossflow heat exchanger for internal temperature and a humidification system for internal humidity control. The comparison of variables and the growth rate of the crop was carried out in a controlled and a timed greenhouse. The best growth rate for serrano pepper cultivation was obtained under the following conditions: between 4.14 and 5.42 kPa with 0.251 and 0.225 cm/day in the controlled greenhouse. The results show that it is possible to obtain higher crop growth rates by controlling the vapor pressure deficit in a pilot-scale hydroponic greenhouse, using a heat exchanger for temperature control and a humidification control system. Controlling vapor pressure deficit can be a useful tool for agriculture in CEA.

VPD modifies CO2 fertilization effect on tomato plants via abscisic acid and jasmonic acid signaling pathways

Atmospheric CO2 concentration is elevated globally, which has “CO2 fertilization effects” and potentially improves plant photosynthesis, yield, and productivity. Despite the beneficial effect of CO2 fertilization being modulated by vapor pressure deficit (VPD), the underlying mechanism is highly uncertain. In the present study, the potential roles of hormones in determining CO2 fertilization effects under contrasting high and low VPD conditions were investigated by integrated physiological and transcriptomic analyses. Beneficial CO2 fertilization effects were offset under high VPD conditions and were constrained by plant water stress and photosynthetic CO2 utilization. High VPD induced a large passive water driving force, which disrupted the water balance and consequently caused plant water deficit. Leaf water potential, turgor pressure, and hydraulic conductance declined under high VPD stress. The physiological evidence combined with transcriptomic analyses demonstrated that abscisic acid (ABA) and jasmonic acid (JA) potentially acted as drought-signaling molecules in response to high VPD stress. Increased foliar ABA and JA content triggered stomatal closure to prevent excessive water loss under high VPD stress, which simultaneously increased the diffusion resistance for CO2 uptake from atmosphere to leaf intercellular space. High VPD also significantly increased mesophyll resistance for CO2 transport from stomatal cavity to fixation site inside chloroplast. The chloroplast “sink” CO2 availability was constrained by stomatal and mesophyll resistance under high VPD stress, despite the atmospheric “source” CO2 concentration being elevated. Thus, ABA- and JA-mediated drought-resistant mechanisms potentially modified the beneficial effect of CO2 fertilization on photosynthesis, plant growth, and yield productivity. This study provides valuable information for improving the utilization efficiency of CO2 fertilization and a better understanding of the physiological processes.

Impact of root architecture and transpiration rate on drought tolerance in stay‐green sorghum

AbstractSorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] yield loss due to terminal drought stress is common in semiarid regions. Stay‐green is a drought adaptation trait, and a deeper understanding of stay‐green‐associated traits is necessary for sorghum breeding. We hypothesize that the stay‐green trait in sorghum may be associated with the root architecture and transpiration rate under drought stress. The objectives were to (i) identify the relationship among stay‐green‐associated traits, (ii) compare the root system architecture and transpiration rate of stay‐green (B35 and 296B) and senescent (BTx623 and R16) genotypes under drought stress, and (iii) quantify the impacts of reproductive stage drought stress on gas exchange and grain yield of stay‐green and senescent genotypes. A series of drought experiments were conducted with these genotypes. Under drought stress, the stay‐green genotypes had an increased total root length in the top 30–60 cm (18%) and 60–90 cm of soil (45%) than the senescent genotypes. In contrast, under progressive soil drying, stay‐green genotypes had a decreased transpiration rate (9%) than senescent genotypes by an early (∼1 h) partial closure of stomata under high vapor pressure deficit conditions. The increased seed yield (43%) in stay‐green genotypes is due to an increased photosynthetic rate (30%) and individual seed size (35%) than senescent genotypes. Overall, it is concluded that stay‐green phenotypes had two distinct drought adaptive mechanisms: (i) increased root length for increased soil exploration for water and (ii) an early decrease in the transpiration rate to conserve soil moisture. Identifying genomic markers for these traits would accelerate drought‐tolerant sorghum breeding.

Ion uptake and distribution in sweet potato genotypes subjected to salt stress is not driven by transpiration

AbstractPotassium is taken up actively by the plant, whereas sodium is often either competing for the same uptake mechanisms or uptake and distribution are driven by the transpirational volume flow in the shoots of plants grown under salinity. Reducing transpiration rate is regarded as an adaptation mechanism to reduce leaf tissue salt load. In combination with a high K uptake, plants may be able to maintain growth and are, thus, seen as salt‐tolerant. Little is known about these mechanisms in sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.). Therefore, cuttings of two sweet potato genotypes contrasting in salinity tolerance (CIP 188002.1, tolerant; CIP 189151.8, sensitive) were subjected to 0 and 50 mM NaCl root zone salinity in a hydroponic system and grown under low (0.76 kPa) and high (2.27 kPa) vapour pressure deficit (VPD) to create differences in transpiration. After 18 days of initial hydroponic growth, NaCl was added for another 33 days. Cumulative plant water loss and total uptake of Na, K and Cl were determined for all plants and treatments. Transpirational water loss was twice as high under high VPD as compared to low VPD conditions, but genotypic Na and Cl accumulation remained almost the same. In contrast to plants subjected to salt stress under low VPD conditions, genotypes under high VPD conditions differed significantly in transpiration. However, in both genotypes transpirational water loss from individual leaves and Na or Cl accumulation were not correlated, under high VPD younger leaves of CIP 188002.1 (tolerant) accumulated more than twice as much potassium than in CIP 189151.8 (sensitive). The distribution of the three ions across leaf positions and within one leaf position between petiole and leaf blade differed strongly between the two genotypes. Tolerant CIP 188002.1 accumulated up to five times more sodium and potassium in the leaf petioles in the middle‐aged and young leaf positions than in the leaf blade, whereas in sensitive CIP 189151.8 neither ion was preferentially accumulated in the petioles. This was independent of salinity treatment and VPD conditions. In contrast, hyperaccumulation of Cl in petioles only occurred under high VPD conditions in the petioles of the tolerant genotype, but not under low VPD conditions, indicating a VPD sensitivity for Cl distribution in sweet potato. While we conclude that transpirational volume flow is not a main driving force for Na and Cl uptake and distribution within the plant, we discuss potential pathways leading to the hyperaccumulation of sodium and potassium in the leaf petioles of the tolerant genotype. We suggest studies on HKT transporter activities in the petioles as an object of further studies in sweet potato.

Plants lacking OST1 show conditional stomatal closure and wildtype-like growth sensitivity at high VPD.

Climate change-associated rise in VPD (atmospheric vapor pressure deficit) results in increased plant transpiration and reduced stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, biomass, and yield. High VPD-induced stomatal closure of Arabidopsis is an active process regulated via the kinase SnRK2.6 (OPEN STOMATA 1, OST1). Here, we performed gas exchange, leaf water potential and rosette growth measurements to study, whether (1) high VPD-induced stomatal closure is detected in plants carrying loss-of-function mutations in OST1 (ost1-3) when they are grown at reduced soil water content or measured at increased air temperature; (2) ost1-3 plants expressing OST1 construct with no ABA-activation domain, but intact ABA-independent activation, show stronger stomatal VPD response compared with ost1-3 plants; and (3) rosette area and biomass of ost1-3 are more affected by growth at high VPD compared with Col-0. The stomata of well-watered ost1-3 plants were insensitive to high VPD regardless of air temperature, but in deficit-irrigated ost1-3, leaf water potential decreased the most and stomata closed at high VPD. Differences between VPD-induced stomatal closures of ost1-3 plants and ost1-3 plants expressing OST1 with no ABA-activation domain point at gradual VPD-induced ABA-independent activation of OST1. High VPD conditions led to similar reductions in rosette area and specific leaf area of well-watered Col-0 and ost1-3 plants. Rosette dry mass was unaffected by high VPD. Our results show that OST1 loss-of-function plants display conditional stomatal closure and no extra sensitivity of rosette area growth compared with Col-0 wildtype under high VPD conditions.

Long-term changes in forest response to extreme atmospheric dryness.

Atmospheric dryness, as indicated by vapor pressure deficit (VPD), has a strong influence on forest greenhouse gas exchange with the atmosphere. In this study, we used long-term (10-30 years) net ecosystem productivity (NEP) measurements from 60 forest sites across the world (1003 site-years) to quantify long-term changes in forest NEP resistance and NEP recovery in response to extreme atmospheric dryness. We tested two hypotheses: first, across sites differences in NEP resistance and NEP recovery of forests will depend on both the biophysical characteristics (i.e., leaf area index [LAI] and forest type) of the forest as well as on the local meteorological conditions of the site (i.e., mean VPD of the site), and second, forests experiencing an increasing trend in frequency and intensity of extreme dryness will show an increasing trend in NEP resistance and NEP recovery over time due to emergence of long-term ecological stress memory. We used a data-driven statistical learning approach to quantify NEP resistance and NEP recovery over multiple years. Our results showed that forest types, LAI, and median local VPD conditions explained over 50% of variance in both NEP resistance and NEP recovery, with drier sites showing higher NEP resistance and NEP recovery compared to sites with less atmospheric dryness. The impact of extreme atmospheric dryness events on NEP lasted for up to 3 days following most severe extreme events in most forests, indicated by an NEP recovery of less than 100%. We rejected our second hypothesis as we found no consistent relationship between trends of extreme VPD with trends in NEP resistance and NEP recovery across different forest sites, thus an increase in atmospheric dryness as it is predicted might not increase the resistance or recovery of forests in terms of NEP.

Carbon fluxes associated with fog in an elfin cloud forest in Anaga (Tenerife, Canary Islands)

The role of fog in the relict laurel forests of the Macaronesia is still not fully understood and it is even more relevant in the Canary Islands, where precipitations are rather scarce and summers are dry. Eddy covariance CO2 exchange (FCO2) measurements in a “brezal de tejo” elfin cloud forest in Tenerife (Canary Islands), over a four-weeks period during the wet season, showed that the vegetation can sustain a carbon assimilation rate in an environment of fog, leading to higher median water use efficiency values (19.5 μmol mg−1 ≤ WUE ≤ 68.3 μmol mg−1) than during no-fog periods (WUE = 1.8 μmol mg−1), being highest under thick fog (WUE = 68.3 μmol mg−1). Median FCO2 values across the day were slightly greater under foggy versus no-fog conditions during the study period. These increments were more prominent under a low light environment, especially in the morning, thus highlighting the important difference between cloud immersion versus high clouds. A greater proportion of light diffusivity due to fog may enhance carbon assimilation, although additional concomitant factors may intervene during thick fog conditions. Also, net carbon assimilation was initiated earlier under foggy conditions. During cloud immersion and depleted light, the maximal CO2 exchange, FCO2_max, diurnal values were higher than those observed when fog was absent. Additionally, FCO2_max remained high (FCO2_max ≈ 13 μmol m−2 s−1) for large vapour pressure deficit conditions (VPD > 0.6 kPa). All this is indicative of a profligate water use strategy of the vegetation, presumably due to low stomatal control. Fog was present during 36.9 % of the time and, as a consequence, the estimated mean daily settling flux of water droplets was 1.186 mg m−2 s−1. For the entire period measured, the cumulative settling flux was 1.30 mm compared to the 97.6 mm of rainfall and the 36.6 mm of throughfall, and the canopy was wet at least 33.3 % of the time. The results suggest that such an anisohydric behaviour of the vegetation permits a continuous growth with maximal water use efficiency, while the frequent presence of fog and wetting of the canopy would minimize the risk of cavitation associated with such non-conservative water use response.

Warming Overwhelms the Efficacy of Wet Conditions to Moderate Extreme Heat and Atmospheric Aridity Across the Central Plains

AbstractWhile the relationships between dry land surface conditions, heat, and aridity have been well‐established, few studies have addressed whether global warming will affect the ability of wet conditions to moderate high temperatures and atmospheric aridity. Using Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 models, we demonstrate that absolute changes in the monthly maximum temperature distribution during Central North American summers strongly outweigh the historical cooling effect of high precipitation and soil moisture conditions. Although wet conditions nearly always prevent concurrent extreme temperatures in the baseline period, these conditions are 40%–48% and 96%–98% less effective at 1 and 2° of global warming, respectively. However, high precipitation and soil moisture partially retain the ability to constrain concurrent high vapor pressure deficit conditions below historical thresholds at 1–2° of warming. Our results highlight the growing vulnerability of Central North America to warmer temperatures and drier atmospheric conditions, even during periods of high precipitation and soil moisture.

The influence of temperature and vapour pressure deficit on conidia germination and germ tube production in an Australian Podosphaera xanthii isolate

Powdery mildew of cucurbits, caused by Podosphaera xanthii, is an economic constraint in cucurbit production worldwide. This study examined the influence of temperature and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) on the rate of conidial germination and the formation of germ tubes in an Australian P. xanthii isolate 12 – 48 h after inoculation. Two experiments were prepared by inoculating cucumber, cv. crystal salad, leaf-discs using a spore settling tower. The first experiment incubated inoculated cucumber leaf-discs at eight temperatures between 8 and 35 °C under saturated vapour pressure (SVP), the second compared 18 VPD conditions between 0.038 and 1.797 kPa, in six humidity chambers (33% – 99% relative humidity) and three temperatures (22 °C, 25 °C, 28 °C). Leaf-discs were cleared, stained and microscopically inspected for conidial germination and the number of germ tubes. The optimal temperature for germination was 28ºC at SVP, where more than 50% of conidia had germinated by 12 h, and 85% by 48 h. Fewer germinated conidia were recorded after 12 h at other temperature treatments between 17 °C and 31 °C. The germination percentage and germination rate were significantly lower when vapour pressure was between 0.13 and 2.5 kPa, with germination in response to VPD varying by approximately 10%, indicating difficulty associating conidial germination to VPD above 0.13 kPa. Germ tube production was highest between 25 ºC and 28 ºC at the lowest VPD treatment at near SVP, with more than 50% of the germinated conidia producing at least three germ tubes. Germination and formation of germ tubes significantly reduced when VPD increased. P. xanthii conidia were able to produce a primary germ tube under relatively dry conditions, such as 2.53 kPa, but these results show infection would be less likely and require longer incubation. This study provides the first crucial step in simulating powdery mildew infections on cucurbit plants and may lead to a model capable of providing risk forecasts or fungicide management decision support tools.

Nitrogen control of transpiration in grapevine.

Transpiration per unit of leaf area is the end-product of the root-to-leaf water transport within the plant, and it is regulated by a series of morpho-physiological resistances and hierarchical signals. The rate of water transpired sustains a series of processes such as nutrient absorption and leaf evaporative cooling, with stomata being the end-valves that maintain the optimal water loss under specific degrees of evaporative demand and soil moisture conditions. Previous work provided evidence of a partial modulation of water flux following nitrogen availability linking high nitrate availability with tight stomatal control of transpiration in several species. In this work, we tested the hypothesis that stomatal control of transpiration, among others signals, is partially modulated by soil nitrate ( ) availability in grapevine, with reduced availability (alkaline soil pH, reduced fertilization, and distancing source) associated with decreased water-use efficiency and higher transpiration. We observed a general trend when was limiting with plants increasing either stomatal conductance or root-shoot ratio in four independent experiments with strong associations between leaf water status, stomatal behavior, root aquaporins expression, and xylem sap pH. Carbon and oxygen isotopic signatures confirm the proximal measurements, suggesting the robustness of the signal that persists over weeks and under different gradients of availability and leaf nitrogen content. Nighttime stomatal conductance was unaffected by manipulation treatments, while application of high vapor pressure deficit conditions nullifies the differences between treatments. Genotypic variation for transpiration increase under limited availability was observed between rootstocks indicating that breeding (e.g., for high soil pH tolerance) unintentionally selected for enhanced mass flow nutrient acquisition under restrictive or nutrient-buffered conditions. We provide evidence of a series of specific traits modulated by availability and suggest that fertilization is a potential candidate for optimizing grapevine water-use efficiency and root exploration under the climate-change scenario.

Identifying physiological and genetic determinants of faba bean transpiration response to evaporative demand.

Limiting maximum transpiration rate (TR) under high vapour pressure deficit (VPD) works as a water conservation strategy. While some breeding programmes have incorporated this trait into some crops to boost yields in water-limited environments, its underlying physiological mechanisms and genetic regulation remain unknown for faba bean (Vicia faba). Thus, we aimed to identify genetic variation in the TR response to VPD in a population of faba bean recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from two parental lines with contrasting water use (Mélodie/2 and ILB 938/2). Plants were grown in well-watered soil in a climate-controlled glasshouse with diurnally fluctuating VPD and light conditions. Whole plant transpiration was measured in a gas exchange chamber that tightly regulated VPD around the shoot under constant light, while whole-plant hydraulic conductance and its components (root and stem hydraulic conductance) were calculated from dividing TR by water potential gradients measured with a pressure chamber. Although TR of Mélodie/2 increased linearly with VPD, ILB 938/2 limited its TR above 2.0 kPa. Nevertheless, Mélodie/2 had a higher leaf water potential than ILB 938/2 at both low (1.0 kPa) and high (3.2 kPa) VPD. Almost 90 % of the RILs limited their TR at high VPD with a break-point (BP) range of 1.5-3.0 kPa and about 10 % had a linear TR response to VPD. Thirteen genomic regions contributing to minimum and maximum transpiration, and whole-plant and root hydraulic conductance, were identified on chromosomes 1 and 3, while one locus associated with BP transpiration was identified on chromosome 5. This study provides insight into the physiological and genetic control of transpiration in faba bean and opportunities for marker-assisted selection to improve its performance in water-limited environments.

Distinct Rainfall Interception Profiles among Four Common Pacific Northwest Tree Species

Forest tree canopies have a critical influence on water cycles through the interception of precipitation. Nevertheless, radial patterns of canopy interception may vary interspecifically. We analyzed canopy interception using catchments along radial transects underneath four common forest tree species (Acer macrophyllum, Alnus rubra, Pseudotsuga menziesii, and Thuja plicata) in the Pacific Northwest over two years. Near the center of the canopy in the leaf-off season, interception was 51.6%–67.2% in conifer species and only 20.1%–40.1% in broadleaf species, and interception declined to 19.9–29.9 for all species near the edge of the canopy. One deciduous species (A. rubra) showed spatially uniform interception during the leaf-off period (19.9%–20.96%), while another varied from 23.1%–40.1%. Patterns were more pronounced in the leaf-on period (under high vapor pressure deficit conditions), where conifers intercepted 36.5%–95.9% of precipitation, depending on the species and position under the canopy. Deciduous species similarly intercepted 42.1%–67.7% of rainfall, depending on species and canopy position. Total throughfall was curvilinearly related to the amount of rainfall near canopy centers for conifer trees but less so for deciduous trees. Soil moisture was predictably related to interception across and within species. These data highlight interspecific differences in radial interception patterns, with consequences for soil moisture, hydrologic processes, and ecosystem function.

Estimation of stomatal conductance by infra-red thermometry in citrus trees cultivated under regulated deficit irrigation and reclaimed water

The aim of this study was to evaluate the robustness of infra-red thermometry to estimate stomatal conductance (gs) in grapefruit trees. For this purpose, the ability of several thermal indices to determine gs was tested for different: (i) irrigation strategies: full irrigation (FI) and regulated deficit irrigation (RDI), (ii) water sources: transfer water (TW) -optimal for agricultural uses- and saline reclaimed water (RW) and (iii) phenological stages: flowering-sprouting (FS) and fruit growth (FG). During two growing seasons, measurements of gs and canopy temperature (Tc) were taken in 14-year-old ´Star Ruby´ grapefruit trees (Citrus paradisi Macf.,). Air temperature (Ta) was also recorded and then the derived thermal indices: Tc-Ta, and CWSI (crop water stress index) were calculated. Subsequently, thermal-gs correlations were established at different averaged thermal data intervals, and VPD (vapour pressure deficit) and PAR (photosynthetically active radiation) conditions. The results indicated that both, water quality and deficit irrigation, affected negatively gs and Tc during FG. In addition, the highest r2 values in thermal indices-gs correlations were found when i) the thermal data was averaged 60 min before the gs measurement, ii) gs was measured over a wide range of VPD (between 0 and 3.5 kPa), and iii) PAR was 1200 µmol m−2 s−1. The ability of the thermal indices to estimate gs improved under RDI and RW conditions, when compared to the control treatment (TW-FI). Moreover, the thermal indices that more accurately estimated gs were Tc-Ta and CWSI in FS (P < 0.001), and the absolute values of Tc in FG (P < 0.001). Overall, thermal indices obtained by infra-red sensors could be a useful tool to estimate gs in grapefruit trees. However, irrigation treatment, water quality, tree phenological stage and environmental conditions (VPD and PAR) must be considered when interpreting thermal indices-gs correlations.

The Growth and Physiological Characteristics of the Endangered CAM Plant, Nadopungnan (Sedirea japonica), under Drought and Climate Change Scenarios

No natural habitat of Sedirea japonica has been found in Korea for the past 20 years. This study was conducted to provide basic physiological data for the conservation strategy of this endangered plant in response to climate change. Soil fruit daylight system (SFDS) chambers were used and four treatment groups (2.6LVPD, 2.6HVPD, 8.5LVPD, and 8.5HVPD) were designed based on the RCP scenario (RCP 2.6, and 8.5) and VPD conditions (low VPD; LVPD, and high VPD; HVPD). Air dryness was induced in the HVPD groups during the daytime by increasing the atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (VPD). There was no significant difference based on the RCP scenario. However, the difference between LVPD and HVPD was considerable. Total CO2 uptake and transpiration were lower than those of LVPD due to the duration decrease of Phase I in 2.6HVPD and 8.5HVPD. There was a reduction in total biomass, leaf thickness, length, and the number of leaves. ABS/RC, DI0/RC, φD0, VK, VJ, and other chlorophyll fluorescence markers increased. φP0, RE0/RC, φE0, ψE0, φR0, RC/CS0, Sm, N, PIabs, DFabs, SFIabs, and PIabs,Total declined. Daily drought stresses impact the physiological mechanisms occurring at nighttime. The defense mechanisms against drought stress occur by conserving water by controlling the stomata, inactivating the reaction center, and increasing the dissipated energy through heat. In summary, S. japonica is flexible against drought stress.

Drought-Induced Responses in Maize under Different Vapor Pressure Deficit Conditions.

Water stress in plants depends on the soil water level and the evaporative demand. In this study, the physiological, biochemical, and molecular response of maize were examined under three evaporative demand conditions (low—1.00 kPa, medium—2.2 kPa, and high—4.00 kPa Vapor pressure deficit (VPD)) at three different soil water content (SWC); well-watered, 45%, and 35% SWC. Plants grown at 35% SWC under high VPD had significant (p < 0.01) lower leaf weight, leaf area, and leaf number than low VPD. Plants under low, medium, and high VPD with drought stress (45% and 35% SWC) showed a 30 to 60% reduction in their leaf area compared to well-watered plants. Gas exchange parameters including photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and water use efficiency exhibited significant differences (p < 0.01) between treatments, with the highest reduction occuring at 35% SWC and high VPD. Both drought and VPD significantly (p < 0.01) increased C4 enzyme levels and some transcription factors with increased stress levels. Transcription factors primarily related to Abssisic Acid (ABA) synthesis were upregulated under drought, which might be related to high ABA levels. In summary, severe drought levels coupled with high VPD had shown a significant decrease in plant development by modifying enzymes, ABA, and transcription factors.

Antecedent climatic conditions spanning several years influence multiple land-surface phenology events in semi-arid environments

Ecological processes are complex, often exhibiting non-linear, interactive, or hierarchical relationships. Furthermore, models identifying drivers of phenology are constrained by uncertainty regarding predictors, interactions across scales, and legacy impacts of prior climate conditions. Nonetheless, measuring and modeling ecosystem processes such as phenology remains critical for management of ecological systems and the social systems they support. We used random forest models to assess which combination of climate, location, edaphic, vegetation composition, and disturbance variables best predict several phenological responses in three dominant land cover types in the U.S. Northwestern Great Plains (NWP). We derived phenological measures from the 25-year series of AVHRR satellite data and characterized climatic predictors (i.e., multiple moisture and/or temperature based variables) over seasonal and annual timeframes within the current year and up to 4 years prior. We found that antecedent conditions, from seasons to years before the current, were strongly associated with phenological measures, apparently mediating the responses of communities to current-year conditions. For example, at least one measure of antecedent-moisture availability [precipitation or vapor pressure deficit (VPD)] over multiple years was a key predictor of all productivity measures. Variables including longer-term lags or prior year sums, such as multi-year-cumulative moisture conditions of maximum VPD, were top predictors for start of season. Productivity measures were also associated with contextual variables such as soil characteristics and vegetation composition. Phenology is a key process that profoundly affects organism-environment relationships, spatio-temporal patterns in ecosystem structure and function, and other ecosystem dynamics. Phenology, however, is complex, and is mediated by lagged effects, interactions, and a diversity of potential drivers; nonetheless, the incorporation of antecedent conditions and contextual variables can improve models of phenology.

Time scale and influencing factor variations of water and heat fluxes in sandy land

Abstract The transfer process and variation characteristics of water and heat fluxes play an important role in both the ecosystem function and the climatic patterns of arid and semi-arid areas. However, both water (latent heat flux, Fe) and heat (sensible heat flux, Fh) fluxes, and the factors impacting each, operate on different time scales. Therefore, the wavelet transformation was used to reconstruct water and heat flux data measured by an eddy covariance system installed in Horqin sandy land, China. The distribution and response regularity of water and heat fluxes in response to control factors were then analysed across different time scales. The results indicated that the responses of Fe and Fh to controlling factors were similar on 30 min and daily scales, to which the energy terms of net radiation (Fn) and available energy (Fa) showed an extremely significant positive contribution. Removing the interference of the energy terms, Fe and Fh are strongly correlated with the vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and air temperature (Ta) at the daily scale. The water conditions of VPD and relative humidity (RH) were the main influencing factors at the monthly scale. At the seasonal scale, Fe was positively correlated with Fa and Fn but negatively correlated with soil heat flux (Fg), RH and wind speed (WS). On the contrary, Fh was positively correlated with RH but negatively correlated with Fn. At the annual scale, Fe and Fh showed a significant positive correlation with all factors. By the increasing time scale, the cross-correlations between various hydroclimatic processes become better. Generally, at the daily and annual scales, there is a high correlation between Fe, Fh and the control factors, and a pronounced periodicity is exhibited. Another factor that is known to cause such effects is the so-called long-term persistence (or else long-range dependence or the Hurst phenomenon). These results suggest that the time scales of flux and impacting factors should be considered when undertaking water and heat flux analyses of sandy land and other ecosystems.