Kathmandu Valley Research Articles

Occupational health and safety hazards faced by health care professionals in Kathmandu based hospital: a cross-sectional analytical study

Background: Occupational health and safety is a broad discipline that covers several specialized fields, including physical, psychological, chemical, biological, and mechanical/electrical, and assesses the health and safety of employees in a broader context. Healthcare workers including physicians and nurses get regularly exposed to occupational hazards. The objective of the study was to analyse the occupational health and safety hazards faced by healthcare professionals in Kathmandu. Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional analytical study was conducted in the hospitals of the Kathmandu district. Ethical approval was taken from National Academy for Medical Sciences and hospitals. Purposive sampling was used to select the hospitals and convenience sampling was used to collect the data from respondents using semi-structured questionnaires. The total sample size was 247. Data collected from respondents were entered into Epidata and were analysed and expressed using SPSS version 25. Results: Back pain (64.8%) and needle injury (59.5%) were the most perceived injury that might occur in hospitals along with hepatitis B (35.2%) and covid (23.9%) as infections. The majority (88.7%) of health workers used PPE while working and biological hazards (88.3%) were the most suffered hazards followed by chemical hazards (87%). The age group of 50-60 years, higher secondary level graduates, government health workers, doctors, and nurses were statistically significant with safety practices whereas Buddhist, married participants, governmental health workers, nurses, and radiologists were associated with hazards. Conclusions: The development and updates of existing policy on OHS and training/workshop, exposure to information, and awareness are necessary for improving occupational health and safety of health care workers in Kathmandu valley.

Clinical pharmacists’ intervention on pain management in cancer patients (PharmaCAP trial): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

IntroductionEvidence-based services to support cancer patients with pain via clinical pharmacy services are currently lacking. Therefore, there is a need to undertake a randomized controlled trial (RCT) to explore the effectiveness of clinical pharmacists (CPs)’ input into the multidisciplinary team (MDT) in providing better therapeutic outcomes for cancer pain management.ObjectivesThe main aim of this pilot RCT is to determine the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of integrating CPs into the MDT for cancer pain management on the clinical outcomes of cancer patients experiencing pain.MethodsThis study protocol outlines two-armed multicenter pilot RCT. Cancer patients suffering from pain will be randomly allocated to receive either clinical pharmacy services, i.e., PharmaCAP trial intervention from the CP, or the usual standard care (i.e., control group). Patients will be recruited consecutively from two hospitals in Kathmandu valley, Nepal. The outcomes will be assessed at baseline (pre-intervention) and 4 weeks post-intervention. The primary feasibility outcomes will include eligibility rate, recruitment rate, willingness to participate, acceptability of screening procedures and random allocation, possible contamination between the groups, intervention fidelity and compliance, treatment satisfaction, and patient understanding of the provided interventions. Subsequently, the primary clinical outcome, i.e., pain intensity of cancer patients, will be assessed. The secondary clinical outcomes will include health-related quality of life (HRQoL), anxiety, depression, adverse drug reactions, and patient medication compliance following the integration of CP into the healthcare team.DiscussionThe feasibility and potential for integrating CP involvement in MDT to improve clinical outcomes of cancer patients with pain will be evaluated through the PharmaCAP trial.Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05021393. Registered on 25th August 2022.

Identification and characterization of probiotics isolated from indigenous chicken (Gallus domesticus) of Nepal.

Excessive and irrational use of antibiotics as growth promoters in poultry has been one of key factors contributing to increased emergence of antibiotics resistant bacteria. Several alternatives for antibiotic growth promoters are being sought, and the search for effective probiotics to be used as feed additives is amongst the promising ones. Our study aimed to isolate and test potential probiotics bacteria from cloacal swabs of various indigenous chicken (Gallus domesticus) breeds from rural outskirts of the Kathmandu valley (Nepal). Selective isolation of probiotics was conducted by micro-aerophilic enrichment of sample in MRS Broth at 37°C, followed by culturing on MRS agar supplemented with 5 g/L of CaCO3. Isolated bacterial colonies producing transparent halo were selected as potential lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and tested for their antibacterial activity, phenotypic and biochemical characteristics, acidic yield, and tolerance to acid and bile. A total of 90 potential LAB were isolated from cloacal samples collected from 41 free-ranging chickens of indigenous breeds. Of these, 52 LAB isolates (57%) showed variable antibacterial activity to at least one bacterial pathogen. Of 52 LAB, 46 isolates fulfilled phenotypic and biochemical criteria of Lactobacillus spp. Of these, 37 isolates produced varying percentage yields of lactic acid, 27 isolates showed survival at pH 3.0, and 17 isolates showed survival tolerances in the presence of 0.3% and 0.5% bile salts for 24 hours. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rDNA sequencing of LAB isolates fulfilling in vitro probiotics properties showed that 3 isolates had genetic identity of 99.38% with Lactobacillus plantarum, while one isolate was genetically similar (99.85%) with the clade of L. reuteri, L. antri and L. panis. Our study identified four Lactobacillus spp. strains having potential probiotics properties. Further investigations are needed to evaluate these isolates to be used as poultry probiotics feed supplement.

Groundwater quality and community health risk in Lalitpur Metropolitan City, Nepal – a geospatial analysis

Groundwater is the main source of drinking water in the Kathmandu Valley (Nepal). To assess the groundwater quality of Lalitpur Metropolitan City (LMC) of this valley, samples were collected in winter and post-monsoon seasons from 35 shallow dug wells and 16 parameters: pH, TDS, EC, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Total hardness, Clˉ, HCO3ˉ, NO3 ˉ, NH4 +, Fe, PO4 3-, SO4 2-, and Total Coliform were analysed. Hydrochemical analysis and GIS-based mapping have revealed spatial and seasonal variations in water quality. The concentration of most of the parameters was higher in the winter samples compared to the post-monsoon. Comparison with the WHO and NDWQS guidelines has revealed anomalous water chemistry. Zones hosting groundwater, suitable and unsuitable for drinking and irrigation were demarcated. However, the presence of pathogens in all the groundwater samples put the entire population of LMC under high health risk. This study bears importance in groundwater exploration, management, and prevention of water-borne diseases.

Water infiltration rate in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal amidst present urbanization and land-use change

Abstract The rapid urbanization and land-use change prominently decreased groundwater recharge areas. Infiltration occurring through permeable areas is responsible for groundwater recharge. However, detailed studies of infiltration in low-income countries especially in human-encroached recharge areas are limited. Thus, this study mainly aims to measure the infiltration rate in the major recharge areas of the Kathmandu Valley (KV) using a double-ring infiltrometer (concentric ring size 30 and 15 cm). It also aims to estimate the volume of groundwater recharge with respect to the decrease in permeable areas in the northern part of the KV. The results revealed the infiltration rate ranging from 0.01 to 37.2 cm/h with an average of 7.3 ± 8.4 cm/h. The infiltration is found to be dependent upon land-use among different categories and organic matter among different soil properties. Additionally, the volume of water recharge in 2010, 2020, and 2030 was estimated as 67.73, 59.05, and 51.5 million cubic meters per year (MCM/year), respectively, which clearly showed a decrease in water recharge with respect to a decrease in the permeable areas. Hence, the findings would be useful for policymakers, stakeholders, and urban planners regarding the preservation and conservation of permeable areas for sustainable water resource management and urban flood management.

Evaluation of aircraft emission at Tribhuvan international airport and its contribution to air quality in Kathmandu, Nepal

The recent rise in the number of aircraft flights and the subsequent increase in emissions has raised concerns worldwide, and this increasing trend is expected to continue. This research provides an overall estimation of the landing and take-off cycle (LTO) emissions from Tribhuvan International Airport (TIA) as well as the associated contribution of these emissions to ambient air quality in Kathmandu valley. The aircraft emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), sulfur dioxide (SO2), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter (PM10, and PM2.5), and black carbon (BC) during the LTO are estimated for recent 20 years by using the emission factor method. The corresponding contribution to ambient air quality was simulated using AERMOD and Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) models. The research reveals that total LTO emissions by aircraft at TIA range from 898 to 2123 tonnes per year (2000–2019). The average LTO emissions of NOx, CO, HC, VOC, SO2, PM10, PM2.5, and BC were around 14512, 8142, 2387, 1737, 1247, 481, 472, and 231 tonnes respectively during the period of 20 years. The highest aircraft emission was shown in taxi/idle mode for the LTO cycle, with major constituents being HC and CO. The LTO emissions and their effect on air quality have continually increased. The highest contribution of the LTO emissions on air quality was found in the pre-monsoon season. The dominant pollutants in TIA were nitrogen oxides and its average 24-h concentration was 158.1 μg/m3, which exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) limit value. Hence, LTO emission significantly contributed to ambient air quality in Kathmandu city.

Analysis of Surface Level PM2.5 Measured by Low-Cost Sensor and Satellite-Based Column Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) over Kathmandu

A low-cost PurpleAir PA-II sensor was installed, in 2020 at the Institute of Engineering (IOE) Pulchowk Campus, TU located in Kathmandu valley, Nepal, to measure particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter equal to or smaller than 2.5 µm (PM2.5). The observation shows that hourly averaged PM2.5 fluctuates bimodally in four seasons (Winter: December, January, and February; Spring: March–May; Summer: June–September; and Autumn: October–November), with the highest levels occurring during morning and evening rush hours. PurpleAir records PM2.5 with a maximum average of 101 ± 26.31 µg m–3, in winter, 55.58 ± 11.42 µg m–3, in spring, 45.46 ± 12.16 µg m–3, in autumn, and a minimum of 22.78 ± 3.23 µg m–3, in the summer. Due to rain and diffusion in the vertical atmosphere, PM2.5 levels are lowest during the summer. The ± number for each season represents the standard deviation from the hourly average. AOD550nm data collected by MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) onboard two NASA satellites, Terra and Aqua, are compared with simultaneously observed PM2.5. With humidity correction factor f(RH), R2 increases from 0.413 to 0.608 (in winter), 0.426 to 0.508 (in spring), and 0.083 to 0.293 (in autumn). The summer AOD data and PM2.5 are not compared due to a lack of AOD observations. By comparing the column-integrated aerosol data with the surface-level aerosol concentration, this study illustrates the relevance of atmospheric parameters while investigating the reliability of PurpleAir measurements. A cluster analysis of five-day back trajectories of air masses arriving at different altitudes in different seasons indicates that long-range transport of air pollution contributes to MODIS's column integrated AOD by adding aerosol population.

Consumer Behavior towards Cosmetics Products in Kathmandu Valley

The article's primary goal is to look at the factors affecting consumers' behavior in buying cosmetics items in Kathmandu Valley. The study examines how one's physical attractiveness might make one feel good about oneself. Most women who use cosmetics are female. In the Kathmandu valley, the demand for cosmetics items is rising quickly. The dependent variable in this study is consumer behavior, and the independent variables are quality, price, personal factors, and loyalty which substantially impact consumer behavior. This study made use of primary data. Using a structured questionnaire and a convenient sampling technique, information was gathered from 189 customers who purchased cosmetics in Kathmandu valley. Valid conclusions were reached using descriptive factor analysis, correlation, and multiple regression analysis. Exploratory factor analysis was done to find the commonalities and composite reliability. The outcome demonstrated that consumer behavior is significantly influenced by product quality, price, and personal characteristics. But it was discovered that loyalty does not significantly influence consumer purchasing behavior toward cosmetic products in the Kathmandu Valley.

Distribution pattern of corticolous lichens in different areas of Kathmandu valley, Nepal

This study attempts to document the lichen species and their distribution in different areas of Kathmandu valley, Nepal. Twenty sampling sites with different degrees of air pollution categorized as disturbed (industrial, heavy traffic and residential areas) and undisturbed areas (clean area) were selected for the study. Sampling was done using the quadrat method. To enumerate the total number of lichen species found in Kathmandu valley, lichen specimens were collected from inside as well as outside the quadrats. A total of 97 species of corticolous lichens belonging to 21 families and 44 genera were recorded from the study sites. Parmeliaceae was the largest family followed by Graphidaceae. The importance value analysis showed that Candelaria concolor (115.2), Dirinaria aegialita, Lepraria sp., Phaeophyscia hispidula var. hispidula and Physcia sorediosa (106.02) are the most common and dominant lichen species in Kathmandu valley. Among the most common and dominant lichen species, Candelaria concolor, Dirinaria aegialita, Phaeophyscia hispidula var. hispidula and Physcia sorediosa were found concentrated in heavy traffic areas whereas Lepraria sp. in the industrial areas. A higher number of lichen species (70%) was recorded in undisturbed areas than in disturbed areas (50%). These study confirm that the distribution of lichen flora is strongly influenced by degrees of pollution. This in turn suggests that lichens can be used as bio indicators of air quality in the Kathmandu valley.

Quantification of Heavy Metal Deposition in Lichen Species of Kathmandu Valley

Heavy metal pollution in urban areas is the major concern of every rapidly growing nation. The main aim of this study was to determine the heavy metal concentration around Kathmandu valley using locally growing lichens species. The study was conducted by random sample collection method throughout Kathmandu, at the interval of 2km considering Tri- Chandra College as reference point in four geographical directions based on radial distribution pattern. In this study, we quantified Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), and Chromium (Cr) in Pyxine cocoes, Arthopyrenia sp, Caloplaca sp, and Hypotrachya revolute collected from Kathmandu valley. The samples were subjected to Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) for heavy metal determination. High concentrations of heavy metals were detected in areas that experience a high influx of vehicles like the Swayambhu area, Pepsicola area, and Lagankhel area. The areas further away from heavy traffic roads showed a significantly low amount of heavy metal concentration. The study provides an insight into the current state of heavy metals in Kathmandu valley, which in high concentration can be detrimental to the health of living organisms.

Tree-related Microhabitats and Trees Outside Forest along the Urban-Rural Gradient in Kathmandu Valley

Trees Outside Forests (TOF) are found in all strata as urban, suburban and rural. Some TOF serve as Tree Related Micro Habitats (TreMs). We conducted the assessment of TreMs on TOF in Kathmandu valley of central Nepal. Inventory was performed in 209 randomly selected points by Excel using circular plots with 20 m radius. Out of 6210 individuals of 150 tree species recorded from the study area, 1038 TOF of 64 species were found to serve as TreMs. 4 forms, 5 groups and 14 types of TreMs were recorded. Habitat types per tree varied from 1 to 6. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 habitat types were found in 665 (64.07 %), 293 (28.23 %), 67 (6.45 %), 8 (0.77 %) and 4 (0.38 %) trees respectively. 6 habitat types were found in one Cinnamomum camphora tree (0.10 %) with 8.60 m height and 75 cm DBH. Out of all the forms, groups and types, all were found in Urban TOF, one type (mistletoe) in suburban TOF and one form (fruiting bodies of saproxylic fungi and slime moulds) along with three types (mistletoe, invertebrate nest and sap run) were absent in rural TOF. The study explored the TreMs on TOF in Kathmandu valley. It provides the baseline data useful for micro habitats as well as biodiversity conservation.

Rockmagnetic Characterization of the Quaternary Fluviolacustrine Sediments of the Thimi Section, Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

The fine-grained silt/clay sediments sampled at 38 levels of a 21 m thick segment at the Thimi outcrop in the Kathmandu valley have been studied for their rockmagnetic properties. These sediments have yielded consistently normal magnetic polarity and 14C ages determined by various workers between 20 and 45 kyrs or even more. They were measured for a set of rock magnetic parameters: low-field magnetic susceptibility, parameters derived from isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) acquisition and demagnetisation (IRM0.3T, IRM3T, MDFIRM), anhysteretic remanent magnetization (ARM) (ARMtot, ARM(30 mT)/ARMtot, χARM), hysteresis parameters, etc. Several relationships between these parameters have been suggested for the Kathmandu valley sediments. Four rockmagnetic zones, based on the minor variations in magnetic mineral types and grain size parameters, are proposed and their possible relationship to the published pollen data has been discussed.

A Short-Term Measurement of PM2.5 Concentration During the COVID-19 Lockdown Period in Kathmandu Valley

The Government of Nepal implemented a nationwide lockdown from 24 March 2020 to 21 July 2020 to control the person-to-person transmission of COVID-19. This study was conducted in a trafficintensified area of Kathmandu valley, where vehicular movement represents one of the main sources of air pollution. Hence, this study was intended to quantify the concentration of particulate matter (PM2.5) for 11 hours of daytime from 23 April to 20 May 2020. It was also to evaluate the influences of lockdown on air quality. PM2.5 was observed using HAZ-Dust, Environmental Particulate Air Monitor in the 18 different traffic sites of the Kathmandu valley. During the lockdown period, a substantially low mean concentration of PM2.5 ranging from 3.69±1.78 µg/ m3 to 7.58±3.98 µg/m3 was recorded in Kathmandu valley, which reflected improved air quality due to the cessation of vehicular activities. Therefore, the study outcome suggests that controlling the existing vehicular activities and promoting energy-efficient vehicles like electric vehicles in specific locations in the city will improve air quality and benefit public health.

Prospects of Trade Management System (TMS) in Nepalese Stock Market: Evidence from Structural Equation Modelling

This paper attempts to get opinions from the TMS users about its performance along with its main barriers in Nepalese stock market. Signaling theory and explanatory research design are adopted to seek causal relationship amongst online stock traders in Kathmandu valley. Following convenient sampling technique, 316 TMS users were interviewed with structured questionnaire; where data collection is done by using Kobo Toolbox. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) is used to see the prospects of Trade Management System amongst TMS users using SPSS and SPSS AMOS software. Findings indicate that volume signals and online trading are significant causal relationship to investment behavior of TMS users in Kathmandu Valley which support Signaling Theory. Therefore, online trading would emerge as a more reliable investment platform and will provide large-scale investment possibilities in Nepalese stock market.

Valuation of timber and firewood of trees outside forest along the urban–rural gradient in Kathmandu valley, Nepal

This study aims to analyze diameter class, quality class, wood production potential and timber and firewood values of trees outside forest along the urban-rural gradient in Kathmandu valley of central Nepal. Inventory was performed in 209 randomly selected points. Circular plots of 20 m radius were used for inventory. All trees (height > 1.3 m and DBH ≥ 5 cm) in the plots were identified to species level and their height, DBH & quality class were recorded. In total 6,210 trees (236.35 ha-1) of 150 species belonging to 111 genera and 57 families were recorded. The total merchantable timber volumes of timber class A and B, and total timber volumes were highest in the urban stratum (537.08, 84.88 and 621.96 cu ft ha -1 respectively) followed by rural (442.94, 66.82 and 509.76 cu ft ha -1 respectively) and suburban (250.04, 47.31 and 297.35 cu ft ha -1 respectively) strata. But due to higher merchantable price of tree species recorded in rural stratum, total market value of class A timber was higher in rural stratum (NPR 7,89,871/US$ 6,085), class B timber was higher in urban stratum (NPR 1,08,255/US$ 834), total timber was higher in rural stratum (NPR 8,70,410/US$ 6,706), firewood was higher in urban stratum (NPR 4,88,709/US$ 3,765) and total wood was higher in urban stratum (NPR 12,95,531/US$ 9,981). Cinnamomum camphora was found as tree species with highest market price of total wood value in the study area. The study provides the baseline data of useful timber species through TOF suggesting a need for appropriate timber producing species selection for plantation.

Pay-Based Gender Discrimination in Private School: Four Cases of Kathmandu, Nepal

Unfair treatment based on sex is considered gender discrimination. Gender discrimination in the workplace has always existed, and the pay gap is a prominent topic worldwide. This paper investigates and provides information on the condition of the pay gap in private schools in Kathmandu valley. Four private schools in Bansbari, Kathmandu, were selected for the research. Out of 139 teachers at the selected schools, 28 female and 20 male teachers were selected for this research using the snowball sampling method. A questionnaire was administered to gather information. The open code analysis of the open-ended questionnaire showed that there was inequality in salary distribution. Remuneration differed not only by employees' working hours and qualifications but also by gender. This paper discusses how gender biases are prevalent in academia.

Development of Pilgrimage Tourism in Pashupat-Kshetra at Different Festivals

Pilgrimage tourism is a holistic phenomenon which provides religious and secular foundations for the development of tourism sites. This paper aims to analyse the development of pilgrimage tourism in Pashupat-Kshetra, a holiest place of Nepal situated in the Kathmandu valley. Pashupat-Kshetra is the place of Lord Shiva and an important pilgrimage site especially for the Saivism community. Shaivism is considered as the most ancient religion of Aryans and Hindus. Lord Shiva is known as the owner of the open field and the husband of the animal or Pashupat. Overtime, Pashupat became special name of Pashupati as a symbolic name of Lord Shiva. This paper has used mixture of qualitative and quantitative approaches. Relevant information were collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected from field survey through counting of tourist flow, observation, tourist interactions and key informant survey. Secondary data were collected from published and unpublished documents including Shivapuran and e-resources. The findings show that thousands of pilgrims come to visit Pashupat-Kshetra from different countries. They not only visit for Shiva Lingadarsan at different fairs and festivals, but also visit it other temples around the Pashupat-Kshetra. They also observe idols of gods and goddesses, art and architecture, festivals, regular and occasional worship, Pradakshina etc. as well to study scriptures of Eastern philosophy. However, pilgrims face a lot of problems due to lack of different types of service facilities that support to tourism carrying capacity.

Health Impact due to Online Education in Mid-adolescent School Students at Kathmandu Valley during 2nd Wave of COVID-19 Pandemic

INTRODUCTION: There seems health impact both physical and mental health of mid – adolescent student due to online education due to untested way of implementation of remote mode of education. The aim of the study was to observe the health impact due to online education during covid-19 pandemic 2nd wave. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This cross sectional study was carried out among 338 mid-adolescent students of selected schools of Kathmandu valley through convenient sampling technique. Physical health was assessed through semi-structured questionnaire, anxiety was assessed by GAD-7 scale and perceived stress was assessed by PSS-10 scale with validated and pretested questionnaire. Data were entered in SPSS version 23 and Chi–square test was applied to identify the association of Health impacts with different independent variables. RESULTS: Mental problem like anxiety was found as mild anxiety in 26.3%, moderate anxiety in 21.9%, and severe anxiety in 8% of respondents. Regarding stress, low stress was found in 10.9%, moderate stress in 83.4%, and high stress in 5.6% of the respondents. The association was observed with perceived feelings of loneliness and isolation during online education with anxiety (p<0.0001) and stress(p<0.0001); body ache (p=0.032) and headache (p=0.047) in-relation with type of gadget used, neck pain (p=0.02) and headache (p=0.045) in-relation with duration of online classes per day, backache (p=0.037) in-relation with physical activities, eye problem(p=0.016) inrelation with sitting arrangement during online education. CONCLUSIONS: More than half of the student have seen either kind of physical health issues and among four in five respondents have seen moderate perceived stress. The association of health impact was seen with type of gadget used, duration of online class, physical activity and weight gain.

Determinants of road traffic accidents in Nepal

Purpose - The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship of poor road condition, drunk driving and weather condition on road traffic accidents in Nepal. Another purpose is to evaluate the effect of gender on over speed, poor road condition, drunk driving, weather condition and road traffic accidents. Design/methodology/ approach – The study targeted to drivers of two-wheeled and four-wheeled vehicle as population. 100 respondents were selected through a simple random sampling technique based on the police report list during last 5 years of Kathmandu valley. Primary data was sources of information for the study. It was collected by applying a well-structured survey questionnaire. Cronbatch’s Alpha coefficients were used to examine the internal consistency of the factors and an independent sample t- test was adopted to analyze differences in road traffic accidents, poor road condition, drunk driving and weather condition in terms of gender. Mean standard deviation, variance, and correlation were adopted to analyze the data in a systematic way to derive the findings for the study. Findings - The study found that there is a relationship between poor road conditions, drunk driving, and weather conditions on road traffic accidents in Kathmandu valley. The study also found that gender has no impact on poor road conditions, weather conditions, and road traffic accidents except for drunk driving. It can be concluded that poor road conditions and weather conditions are major factors causes of road traffic accidents. Research limitation/ implications - The study evaluated only three explanatory variables i.e., poor road conditions, drunk driving, and weather conditions in the entire study so that future researchers can study other factors impacting the road traffic accident of the general public with a larger sample size with new analytical tools. Originality/value –The list of the drivers who had got at least one time accident was obtained from police report. The study based on domino theory developed by Heinrich in 1980 to have outputs.

Financial Profitability of Production and Marketing of Buffalo Milk in Lalitpur District, Nepal

Dairying is considered as a prestigious occupation among the agricultural sub-sectors in Lalitpur. The production of milk is concentrated in the peri urban and rural areas with the increase in demand for fresh milk in the urban areas. This study was conducted to analyse the economics of the production and marketing of buffalo milk in Lalitpur district, Nepal. This research was conducted from July 2021 to July 2022 collecting data from 123 respondents including farmers, collectors, key informants, and cooperatives working for milk related functions in Lalitpur district. The cost of rearing a milking buffalo was estimated NPR 5,762 per month, with the highest share of feed cost (47.8%) followed by labor cost (21.5%) and animal cost (13.1%). Results of Cobb-Douglas production function showed an increasing return to scale for milk production. Gross income, net income (per buffalo per month), and BCR were NPR 13,828, NPR 8,066, and 1.4, respectively. The cost of producing milk at the farmer’s level was far low than the National Dairy Development Board reported cost of production. The estimated mean technical efficiency was 92.41% for buffalo grower in a range of 88- 98%. Average monthly marketed surplus which was 92.7% of total production was around 3.05% less than the marketable surplus. Among the four milk marketing channels for buffalo milk supply, the longest channel i.e. Farmer-Collector-Large milk processors-Consumer has the highest price spread of 50.59% and producers’ share of 49.4%. The shortest channel i.e. Farmer – Collector –Consumer has the estimated price spread of 9.89% and producers’ share of 91.03%. Improving production and productivity is important in order to improve profit. The extension workers are suggested to make efforts and motivate farmers to acquire technical and management knowledge to increase dairy producers’ profits. Infrastructure development was below the standard for milking buffalo keeping and selling. Improving these weaknesses, study further suggest turning peri-urban regions of Lalitpur district as the primary milk production location within Kathmandu valley.