V3 Growth Stage Research Articles

Importance of bioprotector in growth and yield of soybean plants

Bioprotectors are resistance inducers recently launched on the market for several plant species and may represent an important tool for increasing the productivity of the soybean crop. The present study aimed to identify the effects of H2 Protector in growth and yield of soybean plants. The experiment was carried out in an agricultural production area at Ipameri city with NS 7505 IPRO soybean cultivar in 115 days cycle. The experiment was set up following the randomized block design, three replications and 9m2 plot. To perform the treatments, it was used the commercial product H2 Protector with 300 ml ha-1 concentration and 150 L ha-1 flow rate with addition of mineral oil H2 Citrus. The treatments corresponded to the use of the bioprotector in different phenological stages of the soybean plants in a clinical way or overlapping applications in the previous stage: control, V4, R2, R5, V4+R2, V4+R5, R2+R5 and V4+R2+R5. The application of H2 Protector as bioprotector has biostimulant role in plants cultivated without stress conditions and must be applied with two applications to obtain high yield in soybean plants in V4+R2 or R2+R5 growth stages. The H2 Protector when applied in soybean plants in V4 growth stage increased growth and with a second application in R2 (V4+R2) resulted in higher yield of 17.3% corresponding to 636 kg ha-1 (kg hectare-1). H2 Protector when used in R2+R5 growth stages increase in 18.4% soybean grain yield corresponding to 678 kg ha-1. In this way, the use in two phenological stages becomes economically viable, since the costs represent 10% of the increase in productivity

The Critical Period of Weed Control Influences Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) Yield, Yield Components but Not Oil Content

Field studies were conducted in the northeastern part of the Republic of Croatia to determine the influence of the critical period of weed interference on sunflower (Helianthus annuus) yield, yield components, and oil content. For this purpose, different durations of competition were established, allowing weeds to infest the crop for increasing periods of time after planting or maintaining plots weed-free for increasing periods of time after planting. The beginning and the end of the critical period of weed control (CPWC), based on a 5% and 10% loss of sunflower yield, were determined by fitting the four-parameter log-logistic equations to the relative seed yield. The total weed biomass increased progressively in relation to the increase in the competition. The beginning of the CPWC period, based on a 5% acceptable yield loss, ranged from 141 to 234 growing degree days (GDD), which corresponded to the two-to-four true leaf development stage (the V2–V4 growth stages) across both sites and years. The crop had to be kept weed-free until a period when sunflower inflorescence began to open and flower (the R4–R5 growth stage) or from 1365 to 1932 GDD. The sunflower yield and yield components varied between the years and among locations. An increasing duration of weed interference negatively affected crop height, head diameter, and 1000-kernel weight, but not seed oil content.

Understanding the impact of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J. E. Smith) leaf damage on maize yields.

Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J. E. Smith), a serious pest of maize and other cereals, recently invaded the Old World potentially threatening the food security and incomes of millions of smallholder farmers. Being able to assess the impacts of a pest on yields is fundamental to developing Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approaches. Hence, working with an early maturing, medium maturing and late maturing variety, we inoculated maize plants with 2nd instar S. frugiperda larvae at V5, V8, V12, VT and R1 growth stages to investigate the effects of FAW induced damage on yield. Different plants were inoculated 0-3 times and larvae were removed after 1 or 2 weeks to generate a wide range of damage profiles. We scored plants for leaf damage at 3, 5 and 7 weeks after emergence (WAE) using the 9 point Davis scale. While at harvest we assessed ear damage (1-9 scale), and recorded plant height and grain yield per plant. We used Structural Equation Models to assess the direct effects of leaf damage on yield and indirect effects via plant height. For the early and medium maturing varieties leaf damage at 3 and 5 WAE, respectively, had significant negative linear effects on grain yield. In the late maturing variety, leaf damage at 7 WAE had an indirect effect on yield through a significant negative linear effect on plant height. However, despite the controlled screenhouse conditions, in all three varieties leaf damage explained less than 3% of the variation in yield at the plant level. Overall, these results indicate that S. frugiperda induced leaf damage has a slight but detectable impact on yield at a specific plant developmental stage, and our models will contribute to the development of decision-support tools for IPM. However, given the low average yields obtained by smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa and the relatively low levels of FAW induced leaf damage recorded in most areas, IPM strategies should focus on interventions aimed at improving plant vigour (e.g. through integrated soil fertility management) and the role of natural enemies, as these are likely to result in greater yield gains at lower cost than a focus on FAW control.

Deciphering transcriptional mechanisms of maize internodal elongation by regulatory network analysis.

The lengths of the basal internodes is an important factor for lodging resistance of maize (Zea mays). In this study, foliar application of coronatine (COR) to 10 cultivars at the V8 growth stage had different suppression effects on the length of the eighth internode, with three being categorized as strong-inhibition cultivars (SC), five as moderate (MC), and two as weak (WC). RNA-sequencing of the eighth internode of the cultivars revealed a total of 7895 internode elongation-regulating genes, including 777 transcription factors (TFs). Genes related to the hormones cytokinin, gibberellin, auxin, and ethylene in the SC group were significantly down-regulated compared to WC, and more cell-cycle regulatory factors and cell wall-related genes showed significant changes, which severely inhibited internode elongation. In addition, we used EMSAs to explore the direct regulatory relationship between two important TFs, ZmABI7 and ZmMYB117, which regulate the cell cycle and cell wall modification by directly binding to the promoters of their target genes ZmCYC1, ZmCYC3, ZmCYC7, and ZmCPP1. The transcriptome reported in this study will provide a useful resource for studying maize internode development, with potential use for targeted genetic control of internode length to improve the lodging resistance of maize.

Row spacing and phosphorus use efficiency in no-tillage maize

Reduced row spacing has shown to increase maize (Zea mays L.) nitrogen (N) use efficiency, but little is known about it effects on phosphorous (P) use efficiency (PUE). The objective of this study was to evaluate the PUE of maize under reduced row spacing and varying N regimes. No till maize was grown in Balcarce, Argentina, during two growing seasons using three rows spacing (35, 52, and 70 cm) and three N rates (0, 90, and 180 kg N ha−1). Shoot dry matter (DM), grain yield, and accumulated P content were determined. At V6 and R6 growth stages, the P use efficiency (PUE = g aboveground DM or grain yield per g P available) and it components P utilization efficiency (PUTE = g aboveground DM or grain yield per g P uptake), and P uptake efficiency (PUPE = g P uptake/g P available) were determined. N rate and narrower rows increased total DM, grain yield, and accumulated P content. Phosphorous concentration, PUTE, PUPE and PUE were not affected by row spacing or N rate. The present study showed that row spacing did not affect P use efficiency in no till maize when the soil P availability was adequate.

Evaluating the Effects of Flooding Stress during Multiple Growth Stages in Soybean

Flooding is becoming an increasing concern for soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) production worldwide due to the sensitivity of most cultivars grown today to flood stress. Flooding can stunt plant growth and limit yield, causing significant economic loss. One sustainable approach to improve performance under flood stress is to develop flood-tolerant soybean cultivars. This study was conducted to evaluate soybean genotypes for the response to flood stress at three critical growth stages of production—germination, early vegetative growth (V1 and V4), and early reproductive growth (R1). The results demonstrated that stress imposed by flooding significantly affected soybean yield for each growth stage studied. The average germination rate over the various treatments ranged from 95% to 46%. Despite the poor germination rates after the extended flood treatments, the flood-tolerant genotypes maintained a germination rate of >80% after 8 h of flooding. The germination rate of the susceptible genotypes was significantly lower, ranging 58–63%. Imposing flood stress at the V1 and V4 growth stage also resulted in significant differences between the tolerant and susceptible genotypes. Genotypes with the highest level of flood tolerance continually outperformed the susceptible genotypes with an average 30% decrease in foliar damage based on visual scoring and a 10% increase in biomass. The yield of the tolerant genotypes was also on average 25% higher compared to the susceptible genotypes. These results suggest that breeding for flood tolerance in soybean can increase resiliency during crucial growth stages and increase yield under flood conditions. In addition, the genotypes developed from this research can be used as breeding stock to further make improvements to flood tolerance in soybean.

Interseeded cover crops did not reduce silage corn performance in the sandy loam soils of South Carolina

AbstractA major concern with interseeding summer cover crops alongside cash crops is the possibility of cover crops competing with the main crop for water and nutrients and thus, reducing the main crop yields. We conducted on‐farm trials in the sandy loam soils of the upstate of South Carolina in 2020 and 2021 to evaluate the effect of white clover (Trifolium repens L.), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench), and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) and their mixture interseeded at V4, V7, and V10 corn growth stages on silage corn performance and soil moisture content. We found that none of the cover crops affected silage corn height and aboveground biomass production regardless of the interseeding time. Further, the volumetric water content in the upper 20‐cm soil profile was not decreased by cover crops irrespective of their interseeding time. At physiological maturity, corn height, aboveground biomass, and volumetric water content ranged between 131 and 163 cm, 9 and 23 Mg ha−1, and 10% and 22%, respectively, in season‐1 and between 181 and 216 cm, 0.48 and 1.03 Mg ha−1, and 10% and 17%, respectively, in season‐2 when interseeded with cover crops. When cover crops were not interseeded, the average corn height, aboveground biomass, and volumetric water content values were 152 cm, 13 Mg ha−1, and 13%, respectively, in season‐1 and 204 cm, 0.7 Mg ha−1, and 14%, respectively, in season‐2. These results would encourage farmers who want to consider cover crop interseeding with corn in the regional production systems.

Dicamba off‐target movement from applications on soybeans at two growth stages

AbstractThe objective of this study was to evaluate dicamba off‐target movement during and after applications over soybean at two growth stages. Dicamba‐tolerant soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] at V3 and R1 growth stages in Nebraska and Mississippi fields were treated with diglycolamine salt of dicamba (560 g ae ha−1), potassium salt of glyphosate (1260 g ae ha−1), and a drift‐reducing adjuvant (0.5% v v−1). Filter papers positioned outside the sprayed area were used to determine primary movement and air samplers positioned at the center of sprayed area were used to calculate dicamba flux from 0.5 up to 68 hours after application (HAA). Flux was calculated using the aerodynamic method. Soybean growth stage did not affect dicamba deposition on filter papers from 8 to 45 m downwind from the sprayed areas. At 33 m downwind (i.e., distance of the labeled buffer zone), a spray drift of less than 0.0091% (0.05 g ae ha−1) of applied rate is estimated. Dicamba secondary movement may not be affected by soybean growth stage during the application. Although dicamba was detected in air samples collected at 68 HAA, the majority of the secondary movement was observed in the first 24 HAA. Dicamba cumulative loss was lower than 0.77% of applied rate. Results suggest the more stable the atmospheric conditions, the higher the dicamba flux. Thus, meteorological conditions after applications must be considered, and tools to predict the occurrence of temperature inversion are needed to minimize secondary movement of dicamba.

Reduction in productivity of soybean plants infested with Neohyadatothrips variabilis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) with and without soybean vein necrosis virus

Soybean thrips, Neohyadatothrips variabilis (Beach), a vector of Soybean Vein Necrosis Virus (SVNV), has been recognized as a widespread pest of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] in USA and Canada. Several experiments investigated the effect on soybean when infested with soybean thrips with and without SVNV. Experiment 1 compared soybean infested at V1 and V5 growth stages (GS) with soybean thrips without SVNV and noninfested plants. For plants infested at GS V1, plant height, number of seeds, and seed weights were reduced by 50, 80, and 75%, respectively. When plants were infested at GSs V1 and V5, the counts of soybean thrips peaked at 1,803 and 4,214 per plant 4 weeks after infestation (WAI), respectively. Experiment 2 used SVNV-infected soybean thrips and compared soybean infested versus control at GS V1 and V5. For plants infested at GS V1, plant height was reduced 77.8%, and plants died before setting pods. For plants infested at GS V5, height, number of seeds, and seed weights were reduced 56, 78, and 92%, respectively. When plants were infested at GSs V1 and V5, the counts of soybean thrips peaked at 282 and 883 per plant 2 WAI, respectively. Experiment 3, five soybean genotypes were infested with SVNV-infected thrips at GS V1. Number and weight of seeds per plant were higher and with lower visual disease ratings (progressive chlorosis, necrosis and rugosity) for the more resistant genotypes Merschman Kennedy and plant introduction (PI) 171451 than for the more susceptible genotypes: soybean breeding line LD12-12734a (Rag1/2), cv Williamsfield Illini 3509N, and PI 417136.

Delayed cover-crop termination and reduced herbicide inputs produce trade-offs in soybean phase of US Northeast forage-grain rotation

AbstractRegion- and system-specific research is needed to understand the viability of delayed cover-crop termination (i.e., planting green) as an integrated weed management (IWM) tactic in no-till soybean. In a 3-yr field experiment, we evaluated the potential for planting green to facilitate elimination of soil-applied, preemergence residual herbicides within a soybean phase of a 6-yr grain–forage cropping systems experiment in Pennsylvania. This IWM tactic was contrasted with a Standard treatment, which included 14 to 21 d pre-plant termination of cereal rye and a two-pass herbicide program with preemergence herbicides. A 63% increase in cereal rye biomass production was observed within the IWM treatment in 2019, but only a 22% and 33% increase in 2020 and 2021, respectively. In 2020, significantly lower volumetric water content (%VWC) was observed within the IWM treatment in dates closest to planting and greater %VWC at multiple dates in June and July compared to the Standard treatment. No differences occurred in soybean populations, but soybean biomass at the V4 growth stage was reduced in the Standard treatment compared to the IWM treatment, which we attribute to injury from preemergence applications. The Standard treatment resulted in greater soybean yield (2,590 kg ha–1) than the IWM treatment (1,870 kg ha–1) in 2020, but yields were similar in other years. The IWM treatment resulted in 58% fewer herbicide inputs, as measured by the number of active ingredients applied, compared to the Standard over the 3-yr study. Yet, peak weed biomass did not differ between treatments. However, the IWM treatment resulted in greater total horseweed density and the number of horseweed plants that exceeded recommended size-based height thresholds (10 cm) compared to the Standard treatment just prior to postemergence applications (35–42 d after planting) in 2020 and 2021, underscoring the importance of integrating surface mulch residues with effective herbicide sites of action.

Can relative sensitivity of cover crop species to chloroacetamide and pyrazole herbicides be exploited to design interseeding mixtures?

AbstractDrill-interseeding cover crops into standing corn (V3 to V5 growth stage) provides opportunities for increasing functional diversity in cropping systems by facilitating use of cover crop mixtures that include grass, legume, and brassica species. Designing herbicide-based weed control programs that negotiate tradeoffs between crop protection and environmental goals when interseeding mixtures remains a major challenge. The objective of this study was to use greenhouse-based dose-response assays to describe the relative sensitivity of 12 cover crop species that differ in traits, including taxonomic group and seed mass, to chloroacetamide (acetochlor, dimethenamid, S-metolachlor; Group 15 herbicides as categorized by the Weed Science Society of America) and pyrazole (pyroxasulfone; Group 15) herbicides. Nonlinear models were fit, and effective doses were estimated (ED50) to compare relative sensitivities of cover crop species to each herbicide. Brassica species (winter canola, Dwarf Essex rape, daikon radish) were less sensitive than small-seeded legumes (medium red clover, crimson clover) and grasses (annual ryegrass) in response to each chloroacetamide, but similar in response to pyroxasulfone. Austrian winter pea, a large-seeded legume, was less sensitive to each herbicide compared to other legumes (crimson clover, medium red clover, hairy vetch). Cereal rye and triticale were less sensitive to dimethenamid, S-metolachlor, and pyroxasulfone compared to annual ryegrass, but similar sensitivities were observed for acetochlor. These results suggest that relative differences in sensitivity to chloroacetamide and pyrazole herbicides could be exploited when designing cover crop mixtures for interseeding. It is imperative, however, to use these findings in conjunction with field-based observations of cover crop injury potential in interseeded systems.

Sampling Depth and Crop Growth Stage affect Estimates of the Population Density of Lesion Nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) in Corn Fields in Ohio.

The effects of sampling depth and crop growth stage on the population density of lesion nematodes were investigated in three commercial fields in Wayne and Fulton counties, Ohio during the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons. Soil samples were collected at five growth stages by removing 15 soil cores to a depth of 70 cm from each of 25 plots per field-year. Cores were divided into seven 10-cm sections from each of which nematodes were extracted from the soil and root fractions. Pratylenchus crenatus and P. thornei were detected in approximately 84 and 78% of the samples collected in Wayne and Fulton counties, respectively. Depth significantly affected total population density of both species as well as densities in the soil and root factions in all field-years, but the effects of growth stage and its interaction with depth varied with field-year. In most cases, mean population densities were higher from 10 to 40 cm soil depth than at the reference 40-50 cm depth, and lower from 50 to 70 cm. There were quadratic relationships between population density (on the log link scale) and depth, with the highest peaks in estimated predicted densities generally occurring between 20 and 40 cm, depending on crop growth stage and growing conditions. These findings suggest that the standard practice of sampling between growth stages V3 and V6 to a depth of 45 to 50 cm and using the entire core for extraction and enumeration could lead to underestimation of population densities of P. crenatus and P. thornei.

Quantification and machine learning based N2O–N and CO2–C emissions predictions from a decomposing rye cover crop

AbstractCover crops improve soil health and reduce the risk of soil erosion. However, their impact on the carbon dioxide equivalence (CO2e) is unknown. Therefore, the objective of this 2‐yr study was to quantify the effect of cover crop‐induced differences in soil moisture, temperature, organic C, and microorganisms on CO2e, and to develop machine learning algorithms that predict daily N2O–N and CO2–C emissions. The prediction models tested were multiple linear regression, partial least square regression, support vector machine, random forest (RF), and artificial neural network. Models’ performance was accessed using R2, RMSE and mean of absolute value of error. Rye (Secale cereale L.) was dormant seeded in mid‐October, and in the following spring it was terminated at corn's (Zea mays L.) V4 growth stage. Soil temperature, moisture, and N2O–N and CO2–C emissions were measured near continuously from soil thaw to harvest in 2019 and 2020. Prior to termination, the cover crop decreased N2O–N emissions by 34% (p = .05), and over the entire season, N2O–N emissions from cover crop and no cover crop treatments were similar (p = .71). Based on N2O–N and CO2–C emissions over the entire season and the estimated fixed cover crop‐C remaining in the soil, the partial CO2e were −1,061 and 496 kg CO2e ha–1 in the cover crop and no cover crop treatments, respectively. The RF algorithm explained more of the daily N2O–N (73%) and CO2–C (85%) emissions variability during validation than the other models. Across models, the most important variables were temperature and the amount of cover crop‐C added to the soil.

Physiological and transcriptomic study reveal SeNPs-mediated AsIII stress detoxification mechanisms involved modulation of antioxidants, metal transporters, and transcription factors in Glycine max L. (Merr.) roots

Physiological changes and genome-wide alteration in gene expression were performed in soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) roots exposed to AsⅢ (25 μmol/L) alone and supplemented with selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) at the concentration of 10 and 25 μmol/L at the V2 growth stage. Excessive arsenic in the root zone poses a potential threat to soybean yield, particularly to roots, due to the limited translocation of AsIII from root to shoot in the case of soybean. We hypothesized that SeNPs can relieve AsⅢ toxicity to soybean root by reducing the AsⅢ uptake and regulating the internal tolerance mechanism of the plants. Results accomplished that SeNPs had positive impact on soybean dry weight and roots parameters under AsⅢ stress. Then, we further evaluated physiological indexes, whole genome transcriptomic analysis and quantitative real-time PCR to elucidate the underlying mechanism of AsⅢ tolerance under SeNPs supplementation. Under the condition of AsⅢ-stress, SeNPs exposure significantly reduced the electrolyte leakage, O2−•, H2O2 and MDA accumulation while increasing the antioxidants level. The RNA-seq dataset revealed total of 5819 up and 7231 down expressed DEGs across all libraries. The number of exclusively regulated genes were higher under As + SeNP10 (4909) treatment than in the AsⅢ-alone (4830) and As + SeNP25 (3311) treatments. The KEGG and GO analyses revealed that stress responsive DEGs such as glutathione S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, ascorbate, glutaredoxin, thioredoxin, and phytochelatins synthase are responsible for AsⅢ tolerance under the SeNPs supplementation. Similarly, sulfate transporter, and ABC transporters (ATP-binding cassettes) expression were induced, and aquaporin channels related DEGs expression were reduced under SeNPs application in AsⅢ exposure condition. Furthermore, the expression of molecular chaperones (HSP) and transcription factors (MYB, bZIP, bHLH, and HSFs) were increased in SeNPs treatment groups. These results provide vital information of AsⅢ tolerance mechanism in response to SeNPs in soybean. We suggest that functional characterization of these genes will help us learn more about the SeNPs responsive arsenic tolerance mechanism in soybean.

Effects of Soil Type, Temperature, and Moisture on Development of Fusarium Root Rot of Soybean by Fusarium solani (FSSC 11) and Fusarium tricinctum.

Fusarium solani FSSC 11 and F. tricinctum are important root rot pathogens of soybean in North Dakota. The roles of soil type, temperature, and moisture in disease development by both species are poorly documented. To assess the effect of soil type on disease, three types of soil (Glyndon sandy loam, La Prairie silt loam, and Fargo clay) that represent soils of the soybean production region in the Red River Valley were examined in greenhouse, microplot, and growth chamber studies. Disease incidence and lesion length on roots were evaluated at growth stages V3 and R6. Soil type significantly affected disease development, with higher severity in the lighter soils of Glyndon sandy loam and La Prairie silt loam compared with Fargo clay. Soil type also interacted with Fusarium species, in which the maximum severity was observed in Glyndon sandy loam for F. solani, and in La Prairie silt loam for F. tricinctum. In addition, the cumulative effects of soil type, temperature, and soil moisture were tested in a growth chamber. Emergence and disease on seedlings were evaluated at growth stage V3. Significant reductions in emergence occurred at 10°C in treatments with F. solani and F. tricinctum, but there was no significant difference among the three soils. Infection was visible at temperatures of 10 to 20°C for F. solani and 15 to 20°C for F. tricinctum. F. solani caused the greatest infection at 20°C in Glyndon sandy loam, while it was at 15°C in La Prairie silt loam for F. tricinctum. The isolates of the two Fusarium species caused root rot in soil moisture ranging from 20 to 100% water holding capacity (WHC). The greatest reduction in emergence caused by the Fusarium spp. was observed at 80% WHC in silt loam and clay soils and 40% WHC in sandy loam soil, when compared with the same WHC in noninfested soils. Ranges of soil moisture causing infection were negatively correlated with temperature. At the lower temperature there was a broader range of soil moistures resulting in infection compared with higher temperatures. At 18°C, most infection occurred at soil moistures of 20 to 80% WHC, while it was 40 to 80% WHC at 28°C. Disease caused by F. solani was favored by a temperature of 18°C with high soil moisture (60 to 80% WHC) or 28°C with low soil moisture (20 to 40% WHC), while F. tricinctum was favored by cooler temperature and lower soil moisture.

Assessing Nitrogen Variability at Early Stages of Maize Using Mobile Fluorescence Sensing

Characterizing nutrient variability has been the focus of precision agriculture research for decades. Previous research has indicated that in situ fluorescence sensor measurements can be used as a proxy for nitrogen (N) status in plants in greenhouse conditions employing static sensor measurements. Practitioners of precision N management require determination of in-season plant N status in real-time in the field to enable the most efficient N fertilizer management system. The objective of this study was to assess if mobile in-field fluorescence sensor measurements can accurately quantify the variability of nitrogen indicators in maize canopy early in the crop growing season. A Multiplex®3 fluorescence sensor was used to collect crop canopy data at the V6 and V9 maize growth stages. Multiplex fluorescence indices were successful in discriminating variability among N treatments with moderate accuracies at V6, and higher at the V9 stage. Fluorescence-based indices were further utilized with a machine learning (ML) model to estimate canopy nitrogen indicators i.e., N concentration and above-ground biomass at the V6 and V9 growth stages independently. Parameter estimation using the Support Vector Regression (SVR)-based ML mode indicated a promising accuracy in estimation of N concentration and above-ground biomass at the V6 stage of maize with the moderate range of correlation coefficient (r = 0.72 ± 0.03) and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). The retrieval accuracies (r = 0.90 ± 0.06) at the V9 stage were better than those of the V6 growth stage with a reasonable range of error estimates and yielding the lowest RMSE (0.23 (%N) and 12.37 g (biomass)) for all canopy N indicators. Mobile fluorescence sensing can be used with reasonable accuracies for determining canopy N variability at early growth stages of maize, which would help farmers in optimal management of nitrogen.

Identification of Functional Genetic Variations Underlying Flooding Tolerance in Brazilian Soybean Genotypes.

Flooding is a frequent environmental stress that reduces soybean (Glycine max) growth and grain yield in many producing areas in the world, such as, e.g., in the United States, Southeast Asia and Southern Brazil. In these regions, soybean is frequently cultivated in lowland areas by rotating with rice (Oryza sativa), which provides numerous technical, economic and environmental benefits. Given these realities, this work aimed to characterize physiological responses, identify genes differentially expressed under flooding stress in Brazilian soybean genotypes with contrasting flooding tolerance, and select SNPs with potential use for marker-assisted selection. Soybean cultivars TECIRGA 6070 (flooding tolerant) and FUNDACEP 62 (flooding sensitive) were grown up to the V6 growth stage and then flooding stress was imposed. Total RNA was extracted from leaves 24 h after the stress was imposed and sequenced. In total, 421 induced and 291 repressed genes were identified in both genotypes. TECIRGA 6070 presented 284 and 460 genes up- and down-regulated, respectively, under flooding conditions. Of those, 100 and 148 genes were exclusively up- and down-regulated, respectively, in the tolerant genotype. Based on the RNA sequencing data, SNPs in differentially expressed genes in response to flooding stress were identified. Finally, 38 SNPs, located in genes with functional annotation for response to abiotic stresses, were found in TECIRGA 6070 and absent in FUNDACEP 62. To validate them, 22 SNPs were selected for designing KASP assays that were used to genotype a panel of 11 contrasting genotypes with known phenotypes. In addition, the phenotypic and grain yield impacts were analyzed in four field experiments using a panel of 166 Brazilian soybean genotypes. Five SNPs possibly related to flooding tolerance in Brazilian soybean genotypes were identified. The information generated from this research will be useful to develop soybean genotypes adapted to poorly drained soils or areas subject to flooding.

Biological N fixation activity in soybean can be estimated based on nodule dry weight and is increased by additional inoculation

The response of soybean to biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) varies due to factors such as plant variety, soil, and environmental conditions, which can compromise the N2 fixation capacity. The objective of this study was to evaluate additional inoculation with B. japonicum at different soybean growth stages as a strategy to improve N2 fixation. This was determined by studying plant nodulation and BNF with the isotope dilution method. The experiment was carried out under greenhouse conditions in a soil without soybean cropping history. Inoculated soybean increased nodulation, plant biomass, BNF and yield components compared to un-inoculated soybean. Additional inoculation at the V3 growth stage showed promising results by maintaining BNF at later growth stages. A strong correlation was observed between nodule dry weight and N2 fixation, providing an easily available method to estimate differences in BNF activity between treatments. Moreover, efficient nodulation is crucial to sustain high yields with BNF, as shown by the correlation between nodule dry weight and pod dry weight.

Selenium increases photosynthetic capacity, daidzein biosynthesis, nodulation and yield of peanuts plants (Arachis hypogaea L.)

This study aimed to investigate the roles of selenium (Se) application on the profile of photosynthetic pigments, oxidant metabolism, flavonoids biosynthesis, nodulation, and its relation to agronomic traits of peanut plants. Two independent experiments were carried out: one conducted in soil and the other in a nutrient solution. When the plants reached the V2 growth stage, five Se doses (0, 7.5, 15, 30, and 45 μg kg−1) and four Se concentrations (0, 5, 10, and 15 μmol L−1) were supplied as sodium selenate. The concentration of photosynthetic pigments, activity of antioxidant enzymes and the concentration of total sugars in peanut leaves increased in response to Se fertilization. In addition, Se improves nitrogen assimilation efficiency by increasing nitrate reductase activity which results in a higher concentration of ureides, amino acids and proteins. Se increases the synthesis of daidzein and genistein in the root, resulting in a greater number of nodules and concentration and transport of ureides to the leaves. Se-treated plants showed greater growth, biomass accumulation in shoots and roots, yield and Se concentration in leaves and grains. Our results contribute to food security and also to increase knowledge about the effects of Se on physiology, biochemistry and biological nitrogen fixation in legume plants.

Improving maize sustainability with partial replacement of N fertilizers by inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense

AbstractMaize (Zea mays L.) is a major cereal crop worldwide and demands N fertilizers, which can be replaced partially by plant growth‐promoting bacteria. In Brazil, inoculants carrying Azospirillum brasilense strains Ab‐V5 and Ab‐V6 have exponentially grown, but a quantitative study on the replacement of N fertilizer by inoculants is still missing. Under greenhouse conditions, we investigated the effects of A. brasilense cells and metabolites applied via seeds or leaf‐sprayed at the V3 growth stage on roots and confirmed strong benefits in traits that improve the uptake of water and nutrients. In the field, 30 trials were performed at 13 sites in Brazil over 10 yr, comparing noninoculated and inoculated maize receiving 0, 50, 75, and 100% (90 kg ha–1 of N) of N fertilizer (urea) applied as side‐dress 35 d after emergence. Overall, inoculation significantly increased grain yield by 3.1%. Increases were confirmed in lower and higher yield levels, subtropical and tropical conditions, and clayey and sandy soils, with low and higher soil organic carbon levels. Yield increases due to inoculation were statistically significant at all levels of N fertilizer, except for at 50%. Inoculation with the supply of 75% of N increased yield by 4.6% compared with the noninoculated counterpart and, noteworthy, did not differ statistically from the non‐inoculated control receiving 100% of N. These results confirmed the feasibility of replacing 25% of N‐fertilizer applied as side‐dress by seed inoculation with A. brasilense, besides the possibility of avoiding the emission of 4.95 million Mg of CO2‐e per year.