Use Of 3D Bioprinting Research Articles

A 3D Bio-Printed-Based Model for Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a disease with a very poor prognosis, characterized by incidence rates very close to death rates. Despite the efforts of the scientific community, preclinical models that faithfully recreate the PDAC tumor microenvironment remain limited. Currently, the use of 3D bio-printing is an emerging and promising method for the development of cancer tumor models with reproducible heterogeneity and a precisely controlled structure. This study presents the development of a model using the extrusion 3D bio-printing technique. Initially, a model combining pancreatic cancer cells (Panc-1) and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) encapsulated in a sodium alginate and gelatin-based hydrogel to mimic the metastatic stage of PDAC was developed and comprehensively characterized. Subsequently, efforts were made to vascularize this model. This study demonstrates that the resulting tumors can maintain viability and proliferate, with cells self-organizing into aggregates with a heterogeneous composition. The utilization of 3D bio-printing in creating this tumor model opens avenues for reproducing tumor complexity in the future, offering a versatile platform for improving anti-cancer therapy models.

Incorporation of hair follicles in 3D bioprinted models of human skin.

Current approaches fail to adequately introduce complex adnexal structures such as hair follicles within tissue engineered models of skin. Here, we report on the use of 3D bioprinting to incorporate these structures in engineered skin tissues. Spheroids, induced by printing dermal papilla cells (DPCs) and human umbilical vein cells (HUVECs), were precisely printed within a pregelled dermal layer containing fibroblasts. The resulting tissue developed hair follicle-like structures upon maturation, supported by migration of keratinocytes and melanocytes, and their morphology and composition grossly mimicked that of the native skin tissue. Reconstructed skin models with increased complexity that better mimic native adnexal structures can have a substantial impact on regenerative medicine as grafts and efficacy models to test the safety of chemical compounds.

Peptide-dendrimer-reinforced bioinks for 3D bioprinting of heterogeneous and biomimetic in vitro models.

Despite 3D bioprinting having emerged as an advanced method for fabricating complex in vitro models, developing suitable bioinks that fulfill the opposing requirements for the biofabrication window still remains challenging. Although naturally derived hydrogels can better mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) of numerous tissues, their weak mechanical properties usually result in architecturally simple shapes and patchy functions of in vitro models. Here, this limitation is addressed by a peptide-dendrimer-reinforced bioink (HC-PDN) which contained the peptide-dendrimer branched PEG with end-grafted norbornene (PDN) and the cysteamine-modified HA (HC). The extensive introduction of ethylene end-groups facilitates the grafting of sufficient moieties and enhances thiol-ene-induced crosslinking, making HC-PDN exhibits improved mechanical and rheological properties, as well as a significant reduction in reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation than that of methacrylated hyaluronic acid (HAMA). In addition, HC-PDN can be applied for the bioprinting of numerous complex structures with superior shape fidelity and soft matrix microenvironment. A heterogeneous and biomimetic hepatic tissue is concretely constructed in this work. The HepG2-C3As, LX-2s, and EA.hy.926s utilized with HC-PDN and assisted GelMA bioinks closely resemble the parenchymal and non-parenchymal counterparts of the native liver. The bioprinted models show the endothelium barrier function, hepatic functions, as well as increased activity of drug-metabolizing enzymes, which are essential functions of liver tissue in vivo. All these properties make HC-PDN a promising bioink to open numerous opportunities for in vitro model biofabrication. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In this manuscript, we introduced a peptide dendrimer system, which belongs to the family of hyperbranched 3D nanosized macromolecules that exhibit high molecular structure regularity and various biological advantages. Specifically, norbornene-modified peptide dendrimer was grafted onto PEG, and hyaluronic acid (HA) was selected as a base material for bioink formulation because it is a component of the ECM. Peptide dendrimers confer the following advantages to bioinks: (a) Geometric symmetry can facilitate construction of bioinks with homogeneous networks; (b) abundant surface functional groups allow for abundant crosslinking points; (c) the biological origin can promote biocompatibility. This study shows conceptualization to application of a peptide-dendrimer bioink to extend the Biofabrication Window of natural bioinks and will expand use of 3D bioprinting of in vitro models.

3D bioprinting: from the functional restitution of organs and tissues to the modeling of chronic degenerative diseases

In order to overcome the long wait of patients in queues to receive a donated organ and the advancement of chronic degenerative diseases, regenerative medicine introduced 3D bioprinting. This study aims to expose the possibilities arising from the use of 3D bioprinting in organ transplantation and in the modeling of chronic degenerative diseases. A bibliographic review was carried out using the PubMed and SciELO databases, published between 1993 (due to its relevance) and 2023, no language restriction. By exploring the techniques, it was observed that biomodels created in vivo and in vitro, especially from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), the main target of this study, mimicked the architecture and physiology of bone, liver, heart tissue and even neural progenitor cells, which impact on the modeling of Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Despite the existing challenges to reproducing functional organs on a clinical scale, 3D bioprinting is a promising technology that promises to revolutionize the field of regenerative medicine and resolve, in a few years, these obstacles that cause high morbidity and mortality.

Enhanced Maturation of 3D Bioprinted Skeletal Muscle Tissue Constructs Encapsulating Soluble Factor-Releasing Microparticles.

Several microfabrication technologies have been used to engineer native-like skeletal muscle tissues. However, the successful development of muscle remains a significant challenge in the tissue engineering field. Muscle tissue engineering aims to combine muscle precursor cells aligned within a highly organized 3D structure and biological factors crucial to support cell differentiation and maturation into functional myotubes and myofibers. In this study, the use of 3D bioprinting is proposed for the fabrication of muscle tissues using gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) incorporating sustained insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)-releasing microparticles and myoblast cells. This study hypothesizes that functional and mature myotubes will be obtained more efficiently using a bioink that can release IGF-1 sustainably for in vitro muscle engineering. Synthesized microfluidic-assisted polymeric microparticles demonstrate successful adsorption of IGF-1 and sustained release of IGF-1 at physiological pH for at least 21days. Incorporating the IGF-1-releasing microparticles in the GelMA bioink assisted in promoting the alignment of myoblasts and differentiation into myotubes. Furthermore, the myotubes show spontaneous contraction in the muscle constructs bioprinted with IGF-1-releasing bioink. The proposed bioprinting strategy aims to improve the development of new therapies applied to the regeneration and maturation of muscle tissues.

The Influence of Developments in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine on Healthcare Advancement and Evolution

The area of regenerative therapy will undergo a revolution thanks to 3D bioprinting, which holds enormous potential for the bioprinting of artificial tissue and organs. The present research explores the potential synergies between 3D bioprinting and current developments in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Before 3D bioprinting is extensively used in organotypic structures for regenerative medicine, a number of obstacles must be solved. This places a significant burden on society in terms of providing care for those who have deteriorating organs and debilitating diseases. Researchers and medical experts are developing medications and technology that can repair tissues and even generate fresh ones in order to solve this problem. Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine strive to create new tissues and organs while also curing damaged or sick ones by fusing technology and biological principles. substantial breakthroughs in these domains have a substantial influence on 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs. The area of regenerative medicine might undergo a radical transformation thanks to the use of 3D bioprinting, which makes it possible to build new tissues and organs. The relationship between recent developments in tissue engineering, 3D bioprinting, and regenerative medicine is investigated in this paper. Before 3D bioprinting can be widely used to produce organotypic structures for regenerative medicine, a number of problems must be overcome

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS FOR 3D BIOPRINTING IN MALAYSIA

Additive manufacturing in the field of tissue engineering has evolved rapidly over the past few decades. 3D bioprinting is an extendedapplication of additive manufacturing that involves the building of tissue or organ in a layer-by-layer manner using a bioprintervia instructions from computer graphic software. 3D bioprinting technology offers promise in the transformation of healthcare sectors. Consequently, disputes regarding commercial use of 3D bioprinting, in particular on intellectual property rights will arise. Patent ownership and registration of bioprinting products and processes pose issues of ethics. The copyrighted works of 3D bioprinting software pose risks of copyright infringement. Besides, there is also a question of whether the marks and brand of 3D bioprinters can be protected as trademarks. The main objective of this study is to analyse how existing intellectual property laws in Malaysia can be utilized to protect 3D bioprinting technology intellectual property rights. The qualitative method is employed in this study, in particular, content analysis of journal articles, books, international conventions, directives, statutes and court cases. Semi-structured interviews with two respondents from relevant ministries were conducted to achieve the objectives of this study. Additionally, a comparative study of legal frameworks in the United States and Europe is adopted to examine intellectual property rights on the international stage. The study revealed that 3D bioprinting products and processes are patentable under the PatentsAct 1983; however, ethical and morality issues are challenges in granting protection. Apart from that, copyright can protect computeraided bioprinting design software and programs under the Copyright Act 1987 and the marks and brand of 3D bioprinting products can be protected under the Trademark Act 2019. The findings of this study will expose the potential in commercialization of 3D bioprinting among industry players and propose improvements to the current regulatory framework of 3D bioprinting related to intellectual property rights.

Three-Dimensional Bioprinting in Cardiovascular Disease: Current Status and Future Directions.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing plays an important role in cardiovascular disease through the use of personalised models that replicate the normal anatomy and its pathology with high accuracy and reliability. While 3D printed heart and vascular models have been shown to improve medical education, preoperative planning and simulation of cardiac procedures, as well as to enhance communication with patients, 3D bioprinting represents a potential advancement of 3D printing technology by allowing the printing of cellular or biological components, functional tissues and organs that can be used in a variety of applications in cardiovascular disease. Recent advances in bioprinting technology have shown the ability to support vascularisation of large-scale constructs with enhanced biocompatibility and structural stability, thus creating opportunities to replace damaged tissues or organs. In this review, we provide an overview of the use of 3D bioprinting in cardiovascular disease with a focus on technologies and applications in cardiac tissues, vascular constructs and grafts, heart valves and myocardium. Limitations and future research directions are highlighted.

Development and Characterization of Lactobacillus rhamnosus-Containing Bioprints for Application to Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections.

Catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI) are a significant healthcare burden affecting millions of patients annually. CAUTI are characterized by infection of the bladder and pathogen colonization of the catheter surface, making them especially difficult to treat. Various catheter modifications have been employed to reduce pathogen colonization, including infusion of antibiotics and antimicrobial compounds, altering the surface architecture of the catheter, or coating it with nonpathogenic bacteria. Lactobacilli probiotics offer promise for a "bacterial interference" approach because they not only compete for adhesion to the catheter surface but also produce and secrete antimicrobial compounds effective against uropathogens. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has enabled fabrication of well-defined, cell-laden architectures with tailored release of active agents, thereby offering a novel means for sustained probiotic delivery. Silicone has shown to be a promising biomaterial for catheter applications due to mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and its ability to mitigate encrustation on the catheter. Additionally, silicone, as a bioink, provides an optimum matrix for bioprinting lactobacilli. This study formulates and characterizes novel 3D-bioprinted Lactobacillus rhamnosus (L. rhamnosus)-containing silicone scaffolds for future urinary tract catheterization applications. Weight-to-weight (w/w) ratio of silicone/L. rhamnosus was bioprinted and cured with relative catheter dimensions in diameter. Scaffolds were analyzed in vitro for mechanical integrity, recovery of L. rhamnosus, antimicrobial production, and antibacterial effect against uropathogenic Escherichia coli, the leading cause of CAUTI. The results show that L. rhamnosus-containing scaffolds are capable of sustained recovery of live bacteria over 14 days, with sustained production of lactic acid and hydrogen peroxide. Through the use of 3D bioprinting, this study presents a potential alternative strategy to incorporate probiotics into urinary catheters, with the ultimate goal of preventing and treating CAUTI.

3D bioprinting of cartilaginous templates for large bone defect healing.

Damaged or diseased bone can be treated using autografts or a range of different bone grafting biomaterials, however limitations with such approaches has motivated increased interest in developmentally inspired bone tissue engineering (BTE) strategies that seek to recapitulate the process of endochondral ossification (EO) as a means of regenerating critically sized defects. The clinical translation of such strategies will require the engineering of scaled-up, geometrically defined hypertrophic cartilage grafts that can be rapidly vascularised and remodelled into bone in mechanically challenging defect environments. The goal of this study was to 3D bioprint mechanically reinforced cartilaginous templates and to assess their capacity to regenerate critically sized femoral bone defects. Human mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (hMSCs) were incorporated into fibrin based bioinks and bioprinted into polycaprolactone (PCL) frameworks to produce mechanically reinforced constructs. Chondrogenic priming of such hMSC laden constructs was required to support robust vascularisation and graft mineralisation in vivo following their subcutaneous implantation into nude mice. With a view towards maximising their potential to support endochondral bone regeneration, we next explored different in vitro culture regimes to produce chondrogenic and early hypertrophic engineered grafts. Following their implantation into femoral bone defects within transiently immunosuppressed rats, such bioprinted constructs were rapidly remodelled into bone in vivo, with early hypertrophic constructs supporting higher levels of vascularisation and bone formation compared to the chondrogenic constructs. Such early hypertrophic bioprinted constructs also supported higher levels of vascularisation and spatially distinct patterns of new formation compared to BMP-2 loaded collagen scaffolds (here used as a positive control). In conclusion, this study demonstrates that fibrin based bioinks support chondrogenesis of hMSCs in vitro, which enables the bioprinting of mechanically reinforced hypertrophic cartilaginous templates capable of supporting large bone defect regeneration. These results support the use of 3D bioprinting as a strategy to scale-up the engineering of developmentally inspired templates for BTE. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Despite the promise of developmentally inspired tissue engineering strategies for bone regeneration, there are still challenges that need to be addressed to enable clinical translation. This work reports the development and assessment (in vitro and in vivo) of a 3D bioprinting strategy to engineer mechanically-reinforced cartilaginous templates for large bone defect regeneration using human MSCs. Using distinct in vitro priming protocols, it was possible to generate cartilage grafts with altered phenotypes. More hypertrophic grafts, engineered in vitro using TGF-β3 and BMP-2, supported higher levels of blood vessel infiltration and accelerated bone regeneration in vivo. This study also identifies some of the advantages and disadvantages of such endochondral bone TE strategies over the direct delivery of BMP-2 from collagen-based scaffolds.

Updates in the Use of 3D Bioprinting in Biomedical Engineering for Clinical Application: A Review

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is one of the most well-liked new innovative and promising manufacturing techniques, which has demonstrated tremendous potential for the creation of biostructures in tissue engineering, particularly for bones, orthopaedic tissues, and related organs. 3D printing for the medical industry was considered a lofty pipe dream. Time and money, though, made it a reality. Today's 3D printing technology has a significant possibility to assist pharmaceutical and medical corporations in developing more specialised pharmaceuticals, enabling the quick creation of medical implants, and transforming how doctors and surgeons approach surgical planning. In today's practise of precision medicine and for individualised therapies, patient-specific anatomical models that are 3D printed are becoming increasingly helpful tools. In contrast to the conventional use of 3D printing to create cell-free scaffolds, 3D bioprinting requires various technical methods, such as biomimicry, autonomous self-assembly, and mini-tissue building blocks, to create 3D structures with mechanical and biological properties suitable for the deposition of living cells and the restoration of tissue and organ function. Cells, bioinks, and bioprinters are all necessary components of the bioprinting process, and each one of them has biological, technological, ethical, and cost- and clinically-effectiveness-related issues. As a result, there are several difficulties in integrating 3D bioprinting into widespread clinical practise. Currently, there are multiple applications for 3D bioprinting such as in surgery, cardiovascular system, musculoskeletal and even in drug screening. All of which will be discussed in this review.

Establishing a reproducible approach to study cellular functions of plant cells with 3D bioprinting

Capturing cell-to-cell signals in a three-dimensional (3D) environment is key to studying cellular functions. A major challenge in the current culturing methods is the lack of accurately capturing multicellular 3D environments. In this study, we established a framework for 3D bioprinting plant cells to study cell viability, cell division, and cell identity. We established long-term cell viability for bioprinted Arabidopsis and soybean cells. To analyze the generated large image datasets, we developed a high-throughput image analysis pipeline. Furthermore, we showed the cell cycle reentry of bioprinted cells for which the timing coincides with the induction of core cell cycle genes and regeneration-related genes, ultimately leading to microcallus formation. Last, the identity of bioprinted Arabidopsis root cells expressing endodermal markers was maintained for longer periods. The framework established here paves the way for a general use of 3D bioprinting for studying cellular reprogramming and cell cycle reentry toward tissue regeneration.

In vitro long term differentiation and functionality of three-dimensional bioprinted primary human hepatocytes: application for in vivo engraftment

In recent decades, 3D in vitro cultures of primary human hepatocytes (PHHs) have been increasingly developed to establish models capable of faithfully mimicking main liver functions. The use of 3D bioprinting, capable of recreating structures composed of cells embedded in matrix with controlled microarchitectures, is an emergent key feature for tissue engineering. In this work, we used an extrusion-based system to print PHH in a methacrylated gelatin (GelMa) matrix. PHH bioprinted in GelMa rapidly organized into polarized hollow spheroids and were viable for at least 28 d of culture. These PHH were highly differentiated with maintenance of liver differentiation genes over time, as demonstrated by transcriptomic analysis and functional approaches. The cells were polarized with localization of apico/canalicular regions, and displayed activities of phase I and II biotransformation enzymes that could be regulated by inducers. Furthermore, the implantation of the bioprinted structures in mice demonstrated their capability to vascularize, and their ability to maintain human hepatic specific functions for at least 28 d was illustrated by albumin secretion and debrisoquine metabolism. This model could hold great promise for human liver tissue generation and its use in future biotechnological developments.

Innovations in Stem Cell Therapy for Diabetic Wound Healing.

Significance: The global burden of diabetic wounds, particularly diabetic foot ulcers, continues to have large economic and social impact throughout the world. Current strategies are not sufficient to overcome this burden of disease. Finding newer, more advanced regenerative cell and tissue-based strategies to reduce morbidity remains paramount. Recent Advances: Recent advances in stem cell therapies are discussed. We also highlight the practical issues of translating these advancing technologies into the clinical setting. Critical Issues: We discuss the use of somatic and induced pluripotent stem cells and the stromal vascular fraction, as well as innovations, including the use of 3D bioprinting of skin. We also explore related issues of using regenerative techniques in clinical practice, including the current regulatory landscape and translatability of in vivo research. Future Directions: Advances in stem cell manipulation showcase the best therapeutic resources available to enhance mechanisms of wound healing such as angiogenesis, cell proliferation, and collagen synthesis; potential methods include changing the scaffold microenvironment, including relative oxygen tension, and the use of gene modification and nanotechnology. Secretome engineering, particularly the use of extracellular vesicles, may be another potential cell-derived therapeutic that may enable use of cell-free translational therapy.

Think outside the box: 3D bioprinting concepts for biotechnological applications – recent developments and future perspectives

3D bioprinting – the fabrication of geometrically complex 3D structures from biocompatible materials containing living cells using additive manufacturing technologies – is a rapidly developing research field with a broad range of potential applications in fundamental research, regenerative medicine and industry. Currently, research into 3D bioprinting is mostly focused on new therapeutic concepts for the treatment of injured or degenerative tissue by fabrication of functional tissue equivalents or disease models, utilizing mammalian cells. However, 3D bioprinting also has an enormous potential in biotechnology. Due to the defined spatial arrangement of biologically active (non-mammalian) cells in a biomaterial matrix, reaction compartments can be designed according to specific needs, or co-cultures of different cell types can be realized in a highly organized manner to exploit cell-cell interactions. Thus, 3D bioprinting technology can enable new biotechnological concepts, for example, by implementing perfusion systems while protecting shear sensitive cells or performing cascaded bioreactions. Here, we review the use of 3D bioprinting to manufacture defined 3D microenvironments for biotechnological applications using bacteria, fungi, microalgae, plant cells and co-cultures of different cell types. We discuss recent approaches to apply 3D bioprinting in biotechnological applications and – as it is a particular challenge – concepts for the real-time monitoring of the physiological state, growth and metabolic activity of the embedded cells in 3D bioprinted constructs. With these insights, we outline new applications of 3D bioprinting in biotechnology, engineered living materials and space research.

3D Bioprinting for Meniscus Tissue Engineering: A Review of Key Components, Recent Developments and Future Opportunities

3D bioprinting has the potential to transform the field of regenerative medicine as it enables the precise spatial patterning of biomaterials, cells and biomolecules to produce engineered tissues. Although numerous tissue engineering strategies have been developed for meniscal repair, the field has yet to realize an implant capable of completely regenerating the tissue. This paper first summarized existing meniscal repair strategies, highlighting the importance of engineering biomimetic implants for successful meniscal regeneration. Next, we reviewed how developments in 3D (bio)printing are accelerating the engineering of functional meniscal tissues and the development of implants targeting damaged or diseased menisci. Some of the opportunities and challenges associated with use of 3D bioprinting for meniscal tissue engineering are identified. Finally, we discussed key emerging research areas with the capacity to enhance the bioprinting of meniscal grafts.

Applications of 3D Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine.

Regenerative medicine is an emerging field that centers on the restoration and regeneration of functional components of damaged tissue. Tissue engineering is an application of regenerative medicine and seeks to create functional tissue components and whole organs. Using 3D printing technologies, native tissue mimics can be created utilizing biomaterials and living cells. Recently, regenerative medicine has begun to employ 3D bioprinting methods to create highly specialized tissue models to improve upon conventional tissue engineering methods. Here, we review the use of 3D bioprinting in the advancement of tissue engineering by describing the process of 3D bioprinting and its advantages over other tissue engineering methods. Materials and techniques in bioprinting are also reviewed, in addition to future clinical applications, challenges, and future directions of the field.

3D bioprinting on cathodes in microbial electrosynthesis for increased acetate production rate using Sporomusa ovata

Microbial Electrosynthesis (MES) is emerging as a promising technology for the decarbonization of the economy. The use of CO2 as a feedstock, i.e. through carbon capture and utilization, can create attractive business opportunities for the production of third generation biofuels. Achieving highly efficient electron transfer from the cathode to microbes is one of the main challenges hindering the development of MES reactors. It is, therefore, essential to improve biofilm growth for enhanced electron-transfer during bioconversion.In this study we show the first use of 3D bio-printing for microbial electrosynthesis systems, creating a “synthetic biofilm”, containing Sporomusa ovata. The synthetic biofilm greatly improves the acetate production rate while drastically decreasing start-up time. Using H-cell reactors, poised at −0.8 V vs Ag/AgCl, with a synthetic biofilm printed on a carbon cloth electrode, an average acetate productivity of 47±5.1 g day−1 m−2 (0.31±0.55 g L−1 day−1) with a maximum productivity of 104 g day1 m−2 (0.68 g L−1⋅day−1) was achieved. This is an order of magnitude higher than typical S. ovata production rates, and 2–3 fold higher than reactors using specialized cathodes. Start-up of MES reactors typically require days, whereas a high production rate was achieved almost directly after the start-up (±40 h) using the synthetic biofilm. Cyclic voltammetry data showed H2 formation occurred at much higher potentials than in the control reactors, (approx. −550 mV vs. −950 mV for controls). Imaging showed that the synthetic biofilm allowed for dense growth of S. ovata cells at the cathode, increasing electron transfer efficiency and potentially improving the bio-catalyzation of H2.

Market Analysis on Biomaterials, Cellular and Tissue Engineering

The global bone cement and glue markets are sure to succeed in USD one, 322.6 Million by 2022 from USD 993.0 Million in 2017, at a CAGR of five.9%. Market development is primarily driven by the rising prevalence of sports injuries and accumulative developments in the regenerative drugs field. In 2009, the orthopedical biomaterial market recorded revenues of $236.5 million or thirty-seven.5% of the overall biomaterial merchandise market. This can be principally attributable to accumulative application areas and starter of refined technologies within the biomaterials market. Anyhow, the orthopedical biomaterial market is calculable to grow at a CAGR of seventeen. 2% from 2010 to 2015. vas biomaterial merchandise market is that the 2nd market, causative 12 months of the overall biomaterial merchandise market. The 3D bioprinting market is probably going to succeed in USD one, 332.6 Million by 2021 from USD 411.4 Million in 2016, at a CAGR of twenty-six.5% throughout the prediction amount. Growing claim for organ transplantation, growing R&D, increasing public and personal investments in analysis, and rising use of 3D bioprinting in drug discovery area unit driving the expansion of this market. The worldwide 3D printing medical devices market is projected to succeed in USD one.88 Billion by 2022 from USD zero.84 Billion in 2017, at a CAGR of seventeen.5% throughout the forecast amount. The international bone cement and glue market are predicted to reach USD one, 322.6 Million by 2022 from USD 993.0 Million in 2017, at a CAGR of five.9%.

Artificial Tumor Microenvironments in Neuroblastoma

Simple SummaryChildren with high-risk neuroblastoma have limited therapeutic options poor survival rates. The neuroblastoma tumor microenvironment contributes the lack of response to many interventions so innovative methods are needed to study the effects of the tumor microenvironment on new therapies. In this manuscript, we review the current literature related to the components of the tumor microenvironment and to the use of three-dimensional printing as modality to study cancer. This review highlights the potential for using three-dimensional printing to create an artificial tumor microenvironment in the presence of neuroblastoma to provide improved preclinical testing of novel therapies.In the quest to advance neuroblastoma therapeutics, there is a need to have a deeper understanding of the tumor microenvironment (TME). From extracellular matrix proteins to tumor associated macrophages, the TME is a robust and diverse network functioning in symbiosis with the solid tumor. Herein, we review the major components of the TME including the extracellular matrix, cytokines, immune cells, and vasculature that support a more aggressive neuroblastoma phenotype and encumber current therapeutic interventions. Contemporary treatments for neuroblastoma are the result of traditional two-dimensional culture studies and in vivo models that have been translated to clinical trials. These pre-clinical studies are costly, time consuming, and neglect the study of cofounding factors such as the contributions of the TME. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has become a novel approach to studying adult cancers and is just now incorporating portions of the TME and advancing to study pediatric solid. We review the methods of 3D bioprinting, how researchers have included TME pieces into the prints, and highlight present studies using neuroblastoma. Ultimately, incorporating the elements of the TME that affect neuroblastoma responses to therapy will improve the development of innovative and novel treatments. The use of 3D bioprinting to achieve this aim will prove useful in developing optimal therapies for children with neuroblastoma.