US Farm Research Articles

Optimized guidelines for feminized seed production in high-THC Cannabis cultivars

With the partial legalization of high-THC Cannabis sativa across 23 states for recreational use and 38 states for medical purposes in the United States, the Cannabis industry is poised for significant growth. Projected to reach a sales volume of $50.7 billion by 2028, this growth is driven by the trend of lifting Cannabis prohibition. High-THC C. sativa cultivars, containing more than 0.3% delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) as defined by the 2018 US Farm Bill, are used for both medicinal and recreational purposes. Cannabis sativa is a short day, dioecious, annual plant, where female plants are favored for THC production, which requires seed feminization techniques to ensure an accurate female plant population. This involves using an ethylene inhibitor to induce sex reversal, leading to male flower development on female plants, allowing for self-pollination and the production of feminized seeds. However, challenges such as seed viability and the occurrence of male flowers in progeny have been noted. This review provides guidelines to enhance the production of viable feminized seeds in high-THC Cannabis cultivars. Literature findings indicate that Silver Thiosulfate (STS) is the most effective ethylene inhibitor for sex reversal and seed feminization in high-THC Cannabis cultivars. Specifically, a single dose of 3 mM STS should be applied during the vegetative stage via foliar spraying until runoff, followed by exposure to a short photoperiod of up to 12 hours to induce flowering and seed production. Progeny plants should be assessed for seed germination rate and compared for growth performance with the original parent plant to assess the declining effects of inbreeding. Adhering to these guidelines can improve the quality and viability of feminized seeds, meeting commercial market standards and industry demands for high-THC Cannabis cultivars.

Beer farmers: cultivating an agribusiness atmosphere and consuming agrarian myth

ABSTRACT Agribusinesses invest in harnessing the goodwill affiliated with US agrarianism and farm iconography, hoping publics transfer the goodwill they attach to farming onto corporations. To make apparent agribusiness’s rhetorical strategies, we analyze “For the Farmers,” a 2021–2022 John Deere and Anheuser-Busch collaborative campaign to raise money for the nonprofit Farm Rescue. We theorize how productive tensions—farmers as thriving vs. farmers as needy and farms as human spaces vs. farms as machine spaces—mobilize the contradictions of agribusiness mythmaking in the twenty-first century. Our analysis of this campaign’s beer packaging and promotional video offers scholars who are invested in food rhetoric and agricultural communication an invitation to notice how agribusiness atmospheres both host contradiction about imagined pasts and recenter white masculinity to evoke a secure future based on trust of industrial-scale farming and the hydrocarbon economy. By theorizing how rhetorical affect aligns drinking beer with rescuing farmers, we offer a model of critiquing agribusiness’s reliance on myths to promote their brands.

Annual time-series 1 km maps of crop area and types in the conterminous US (CropAT-US): cropping diversity changes during 1850–2021

Abstract. Agricultural activities have been recognized as an important driver of land cover and land use change (LCLUC) and have significantly impacted the ecosystem feedback to climate by altering land surface properties. A reliable historical cropland distribution dataset is crucial for understanding and quantifying the legacy effects of agriculture-related LCLUC. While several LCLUC datasets have the potential to depict cropland patterns in the conterminous US, there remains a dearth of a relatively high-resolution datasets with crop type details over a long period. To address this gap, we reconstructed historical cropland density and crop type maps from 1850 to 2021 at a resolution of 1 km × 1 km by integrating county-level crop-specific inventory datasets, census data, and gridded LCLUC products. Different from other databases, we tracked the planting area dynamics of all crops in the US, excluding idle and fallow farm land and cropland pasture. The results showed that the crop acreages for nine major crops derived from our map products are highly consistent with the county-level inventory data, with a residual less than 0.2×103 ha (0.2 kha) in most counties (>75 %) during the entire study period. Temporally, the US total crop acreage has increased by 118×106 ha (118 Mha) from 1850 to 2021, primarily driven by corn (30 Mha) and soybean (35 Mha). Spatially, the hot spots of cropland distribution shifted from the Eastern US to the Midwest and the Great Plains, and the dominant crop types (corn and soybean) expanded northwestward. Moreover, we found that the US cropping diversity experienced a significant increase from the 1850s to the 1960s, followed by a dramatic decline in the recent 6 decades under intensified agriculture. Generally, this newly developed dataset could facilitate spatial data development, with respect to delineating crop-specific management practices, and enable the quantification of cropland change impacts on the environment. Annual cropland density and crop type maps are available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.22822838.v2 (Ye et al., 2023).

Availability and Characteristics of Hemp-Derived Psychoactive Cannabis Products: A Pilot Study in Cleveland, Ohio

Background: Hemp-derived psychoactive cannabis products (HDPCPs), such as delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), emerged onto the market as an alternative to cannabis following the 2018 US Farm Bill which legalized hemp. Research on HDPCPs remains limited. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the availability, placement, and consumption modality of HDPCPs as well as to identify potential defining characteristics of consumers. Methods: Between October 2022 and January 2023, researchers visited a random sample of 82 tobacco retailers in Cleveland, Ohio, to evaluate the availability of HDPCPs marketed as delta THC (eg, delta-8 or delta-10). Information was captured on where the HDPCPs were placed (eg, behind the counter, on the counter, by candy, or elsewhere) as well as the consumption modality (eg, edible or inhaled). Among retailers who stocked these products, clerks were asked who typically buys these products and how often they are purchased. Results: Over two-fifths (41.5%) of retailers carried HDPCPs. Most retailers (97.1%) carried delta THC products behind the counter and carried products as inhaled (82.4%), edible (70.6%). More than half of retailers (55.9%) carried both inhaled and edible forms of HDPCP. Retail clerks reported on a range of ages of consumers from younger to older or “everyone.” Conclusion: Hemp-derived psychoactive cannabis products are prevalent in this pilot study sample. These findings necessitate additional research to better quantify the population health impact of these products to determine if regulatory action may be necessary to protect public health.

Is US farm sector debt underestimated? Evidence from equipment lending

PurposeThe growth of lending from nontraditional lenders may pose challenges for official US Department of Agriculture (USDA) farm sector debt estimates, but it is difficult to find data to assess official estimates. The purpose of this study is to examine whether debt provided by nontraditional lenders is accurately accounted for in official estimates.Design/methodology/approachWe compare traditional and nontraditional lending data from farm equipment lien collateral values and the USDA Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS). After analyzing trends in equipment lending implied by farm equipment lien data and ARMS, we estimate whether changes in farm equipment lien values predict changes in equipment debt reported in ARMS and whether lender type influences that relationship.FindingsWe find that credit provided by nontraditional lenders is likely underreported in ARMS. Our econometric model shows that equipment debt volumes for nontraditional lenders are consistently lower than traditional loan volumes in ARMS across a variety of model specifications. We also find that an increase in lien values for nontraditional lenders is less likely to predict an increase in ARMS equipment debt volumes than an increase for traditional lenders.Practical implicationsOfficial farm sector debt estimates may not fully account for nontraditional lenders.Originality/valueThis study demonstrates how the growth of nontraditional lending poses challenges for estimating US farm sector debt. We evaluate farm sector debt estimates and advance knowledge of the role of nontraditional lenders in farm equipment credit provision. The farm equipment lien dataset provides a rich source of novel data for research on local and national equipment debt and investment.

Online Retail of Derived Psychoactive Cannabis Products: Age and Shipping Restrictions

PurposeThe 2018 US Farm Bill's definition of hemp resulted in the proliferation of derived psychoactive cannabis products (DPCPs), which appeal to some youth. Despite the importance of restricting youth access, few studies have systematically examined the DPCP retail environment, particularly their online accessibility. MethodsIn May 2023, Google incognito mode was used to search "buy delta thc." Among the first 100 results, data were collected from the 20 most trafficked websites that sold and delivered DPCPs. For each site, we documented the following policy-relevant information: 1) age verification measures for site entry and purchase attempts, 2) adult signature reportedly required upon delivery, and 3) shipping restrictions. ResultsOverall, 14 websites (70%) required individuals to indicate their age. Most websites (n = 13, 65%) did not verify age at attempted purchase, nor indicated that an adult signature was required upon delivery (n = 15, 75%). Only three websites (15%) had rigorous age verification procedures during checkout that included contact information as well as an image of their photo ID, which would then be validated through a third-party software. None required age verification upon both purchase and delivery. Thirteen websites (65%) mentioned state shipping restrictions; four of these provided conflicting information across different sections of the website. DiscussionAs the e-commerce landscape continues to evolve, clearer regulations regarding DPCP online retail sales and related enforcement are needed. In particular, measures are needed to enforce shipping restrictions and prevent youth access, including increasing the rigor of age verification.

Comparing modern and traditional modeling methods for predicting soil moisture in IoT-based irrigation systems

Proper water management is crucial for agriculture, as its irrigation systems can waste approximately 60% of water. Using IoT for irrigation based on soil moisture can help reduce waste. This study used multidimensional time series modeling to predict soil moisture using two years of data on a US farm, including factors such as soil moisture, temperature, and weather. The models assessed were machine learning algorithms like Extreme Gradient Boosting and Random Forests, Deep Learning's Spectral Temporal Graph Neural Network (StemGNN), and Vector Autoregression as a reference model. Random Forest was the most efficient and stable model. Furthermore, the spectral temporal graph neural network could not outperform the reference model. Comparing Random Forest with univariate algorithms like Naive, Exponential Smoothing, and Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) showed univariate's better performance in 9 of 10 datasets, with ARIMA being best in 8. A substantial disparity is observed when considering the Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) metric. ARIMA yields an MAPE of 0.052, while StemGNN reports 0.127 as the major difference. ARIMA achieves a MAPE of 0.046 for the minor difference, whereas StemGNN obtains 0.038. In the remaining eight datasets, ARIMA consistently outperforms StemGNN by at least 30%. In summary, modern methods could not beat the older methods in the study data sets.

Agricultural credit association efficiencies over time and with mergers

AbstractEfficiencies of Agricultural Credit Associations of the US Farm Credit System are measured quarterly from 2005 through 2020. A slacks-based measure based on the directional distance function is used with non-performing loans included as an undesirable output. This permitted efficiency scores to be measured by type of defined input or output. Generally, most Associations were highly efficient, but there was deterioration in mean efficiency over the years 2008–2018, a period of financial difficulties in the US agriculture. Efficiencies of Associations that merged or consolidated were tracked before and after these activities. Mergers and consolidations often led to increased efficiencies.

Hemp yield and cannabinoid concentrations under variable nitrogen and potassium fertilizer rates

AbstractWith the passing of the 2014 US farm bill, there is more interest in industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L. < 0.3% total tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]) grown for cannabinoid production. However, production recommendations that outline fertilizer requirements of cannabidiol (CBD) hemp do not exist. Our primary objective was to identify nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) fertilizer rates for maximizing biomass and CBD yield. A secondary objective was to identify the relationships between N and K rates and total THC and total CBD concentrations. Fertilizer rates from 0 to 224 kg N and 0 to 185 kg K ha−1 were tested separately at four general locations in North Carolina. Two locations were used in 2019 and 2020, while the other two were used only in 2020. Dry weight yield was predicted to increase linearly from 1822 to 3384 kg biomass ha−1 as N rate increased from 0 to 86.8 kg ha−1. Nitrogen rates above 86.8 kg ha−1 were not predicted to increase biomass. Likewise, as N rate increased from 0 to 84.2 kg N ha−1, CBD yield was predicted to increase linearly from 204 to 389 kg CBD ha−1. Additional N was not predicted to increase CBD yield. The CBD and THC concentrations showed a slight bell‐shaped response curve over increasing N rates, ranging from 11.33% to 12.11% and 0.473% to 0.509%, respectively. Potassium application did not affect yield nor CBD and THC concentrations. Results from this work indicate that N is a more limiting factor than K for maximizing CBD hemp biomass production.

Evaluating dynamic productivity change of US farm supply cooperatives

AbstractThis article estimates dynamic productivity change and its components (i.e., technical inefficiency change, scale inefficiency change, and technical change) for a sample of ~700 US farm supply cooperatives over the 2005–2017 period. Estimation is undertaken using a directional distance function that accounts for the presence of adjustment costs associated with investments in quasi‐fixed factors of production. A bootstrap regression is then used to determine the factors affecting dynamic productivity change and its components. Results show that the sample cooperatives experienced a modest decline in productivity over the study period, on average. The analysis of productivity change decompositions suggests that productivity decline is mainly due to the negative contribution of technical inefficiency change. Results further reveal that ignoring adjustment costs when modeling cooperatives' performance leads to distortions in estimates of productivity and its components. The regression analysis results show that years of operation and a higher share of energy products in supply turnover are positively related to productivity change, technical inefficiency change, and scale inefficiency change. [EconLit Citations: Q12, D22, C61].

Delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol: a scoping review and commentary.

Delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is a psychoactive substance from the Cannabis plant that has been rising in popularity in the United States since the 2018 US Farm Bill implicitly legalized it. This study reviewed research from peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed (e.g. anecdotal and news) reports related to delta-8 THC to summarize current knowledge and implications for public health and safety. A scoping review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and Google as search engines, leading to the identification of 103 documents that were summarized. The themes that emerged were (1) legality, (2) use (popularity, motives, psychoactivity/potency, benefits/consequences), (3) synthesis (byproducts, laboratory testing) and (4) retail (availability, price, packaging, youth-oriented marketing). A second author independently coded 20% of the documents, which verified the categorization of articles by these emergent themes. Most research used animal/cell models or focused upon ways to identify the chemical structure of delta-8 THC in various products. Findings suggest that people often use delta-8 THC as a substitute for other substances. Anecdotally, delta-8 THC is a less potent psychoactive than delta-9 THC; however, several negative consequences have been reported. There is no federal age restriction for purchase/possession of delta-8 THC products. Delta-8 THC is readily accessible on-line, is typically less expensive than delta-9 THC and is often marketed in ways that would seemingly appeal to children. There are no regulations on synthesis, resulting in products being contaminated and/or yielding inconsistent effects. There have been thousands of calls to US poison control centers due to accidental delta-8 THC exposure among minors. Most research on delta-8 THC is largely anecdotal, not peer-reviewed and does not involve human subjects. Future research should examine delta-8 THC use using nationally representative samples to more clearly understand the prevalence and consequences of use. Laws are needed to mitigate the risks of using delta-8 THC, particularly quality control of synthesis and minimum purchase age.

Unlocking the Socioeconomic Advantages of Cannabis Sativa L. Legalization in African Countries: An In-Depth Review

Cannabis sativa L., an annual, dioecious, short-day plant from the Cannabaceae family, presents versatile applications encompassing cannabinoids and terpenes for medicinal or recreational utilization, as well as oil production for culinary, cosmetic, and animal feed purposes. Additionally,the plant's resilient fiber can be processed as paper, biodegradable plastics, textiles, and as construction materials (i.e., hempcrete). On a global scale, the cannabis market is projected to attain a value of $272 billion by 2028. Despite its considerable potential, some countries, including African nations, uphold prohibition due to entrenched stigma, curtailing Africa's potential involvement in the cannabis industry. Unlike regions such as the United States and Europe, where outdoor cannabis cultivation occurs once annually, Africa's climatic conditions and fertile soils allow for up to three growth cycles each year, positioning the continent as a potential frontrunner in global cannabis production. This prospect holds the potential to significantly enhance Africa's socioeconomic development by fostering job creation, addressing youth unemployment, increasing its GPD, and spurring infrastructure development. However, these inherent advantages remain underutilized due to an enduring lack of cannabis education programs that can counteract social stigma. We recommend African countries to contemplate emulating the 2018 US Farm Bill, which allows the cultivation of cannabis cultivars with diminished levels of Δ9-THC (up to 0.3%), commonly known as hemp. Hemp possesses diverse applications, encompassing medicinal uses involving CBD, THCV, CBG and other non-psychotropic cannabinoids, alongside fiber, feed, and oil production. This strategic step could yield substantial job prospects and entrepreneurial ventures, potentially generating an annual revenue surpassing $7.0 billion from cannabis and hemp flower sales exclusively.

Understanding Inequality in US Farm Subsidy Using a Large-scale Administrative Data

Understanding Inequality in US Farm Subsidy Using a Large-scale Administrative Data

The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) for the Asia–Pacific region and world

PurposeThe regional comprehensive economic partnership (RCEP) is promising as per the claims and can be revolutionary for the Asia–Pacific Region. The member countries will get a boost in the post-pandemic world due to the RCEP. According to Brookings, the RCEP is going to be an agreement reshaping the global economics. This study aims to clarify the aspects related to the RCEP and how it can boost global economics.Design/methodology/approachThe study employs qualitative descriptive analysis to address the status of RCEP in the region and the consequences of such main transnational partnership. The study is based on economic reports, official documents and data directly related to the subject of the study.FindingsFindings show that the RCEP will be a significant driver of regional trade despite its faults. The RCEP's tariff benefits and rules of origin, notwithstanding their relatively restricted scope, will encourage enterprises to source products and services from RCEP members, and in combination, RCEP and Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) are anticipated to replace at least some competing US commodities, services and farm exports. For items that integrate parts and components from inside the area, such as from China, the RCEP is projected to reduce tax and trade facilitation costs, allowing enterprises to avoid US Section 301 tariffs.Originality/valueBy examining how the RCEP operates within the framework of domestic and international trade, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of RCEP and analyses its nature based on data and official reports.

Covid and US Farm Labor

ABSTRACTMany governments closed their borders in spring 2020 to prevent the spread of Covid, but they also made exceptions to allow farm employers to recruit temporary foreign workers to fill seasonal farm jobs. The pandemic changed many parameters of food systems. Closed restaurants led to widespread layoffs in leisure and hospitality, rates of Covid were high among nonfarm food processing and meatpacking workers, and there was less Covid than expected among the foreign workers who increased their share of employment in production agriculture. The pandemic accelerated three major changes that were already underway, viz., more labor-saving mechanization, more foreign workers, and increased imports of labor-intensive commodities. Mechanization increases the resilience of production agriculture to labor supply shocks.

The accuracy and informativeness of agricultural baselines

AbstractAgricultural baselines facilitate policy and investment decisions by governments and market participants by providing long‐term projections about the farm sector. Despite their importance in shaping agricultural policy, the agricultural baselines have not been rigorously evaluated. This study evaluates the accuracy and informativeness of two widely used baselines for the US farm sector published by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Agricultural Policy Research Institute (FAPRI) in three steps. First, we examine the average percent errors of the projections and perform tests of bias. Second, we use a testing framework based on the encompassing principle to test the predictive content of the projections for each horizon, determining the longest informative projection horizon. Third, we compare the USDA and FAPRI baseline projections using a multi‐horizon framework that considers all projection horizons jointly. We find that prediction error and bias increase with the horizon's length. The predictive content of the baselines projections for most variables diminishes after 4–5 years. The multi‐horizon comparison suggests that neither USDA nor FAPRI projections have uniform or average superior predictive ability over the other for most variables. Our findings are useful for the agencies producing these baselines and for the policymakers, agricultural businesses, and other stakeholders who use them. The study contributes to the recent literature on long‐term agricultural projections and establishes the groundwork for future research inquiries.

217 Acceptability of Hempseed Meal in Horses

Abstract Congress passed US Farm Bills legalizing hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), after which hemp-farming increased, resulting in an abundance of hemp by-products, like hempseed meal (HSM). As such, HSM must be evaluated as a potential animal feedstuff. A study was designed to evaluate the acceptability of HSM over time in horses, using 6 stock-type geldings (11.5 ± 3.4yr, 539.6 ± 31.9kg, BCS 6). Horses were offered 1 kg of HSM pellets over two 5-min periods, 1 h apart each day, and offered 1 kg of Coastal Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) hay between offerings. Horses remained on a commercial ration during a 1-d feeding-pattern acclimation prior to the 6-d trial. Data (mean ± SEM) were analyzed using a Repeated Measures ANOVA within R Statistical Program. One horse was removed from the study due to complete diet refusal. Intake of HSM on d1 (0.287 ± 0.081kg; P = 0.062), d2 (0.378 ± 0.084kg; P = 0.07), and d3 (0.446 ± 0.087; P = 0.077) tended to be lower than d5 (0.695 ± 0.071 kg). Similarly, d1 (P = 0.043), d2 (P = 0.036), and d3 (P = 0.048) were less than d6 (0.652 ± 0.064 kg). Day 4 (0.530 ± 0.09 kg) tended to be less than d5 (P = 0.09), but there was no difference between d5 and d6 (P = 0.73). Hay consumption was greater on d1 (0.702 ± 0.026kg; P = 0.003) and d2 (0.723 ± 0.041kg; p = 0.001) than d6 (0.410 ± 0.051kg). Hay consumption and HSM intake were not correlated (R2 = 0.001), but the proportions of HSM consumed between feedings were highly correlated (R2 = 0.947), increasing at 0.4 of Feeding 1. These findings indicate that HSM consumption increases after 4 days of exposure but is not impacted by hay consumption.

PSIII-12 Palatability of Hempseed Meal Pellets Compared to Mainstream Feedstuffs in Horses

Abstract When the 2014 and 2018 US Farm Bills legalized hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), increased farming created an abundance of hemp by-products. Hempseed meal (HSM) is a by-product of hempseed oil extraction. With increasing availability, hemp must be evaluated as a potential feedstuff for sustainable livestock systems. The objective of this study was to evaluate the palatability of HSM as an equine feedstuff. The study used a modified 3x3 Latin Square design utilizing 3 mature geldings (G; 7.3 ± 2.5 yr) and 3 mature mares (M; 12.5 ± 6.5 yr) blocked by sex. Basal feed consumption and bucket preference was established during a washout period of 2 feedings/d over 3 days before each period. During each treatment period (3d) horses were offered either 500g of soybean meal pellets (SBM), rice bran pellets (RBP), or beet pulp pellets (BPP) in one bucket and 500g of HSM in a second bucket each feeding. Feed treatments were switched between bucket positions each feeding. Findings are presented as mean ± SEM. Data were analyzed using an ANOVA within R Statistical Program©. The study found that HSM consumption (351.2 ± 30.6g) did not differ with treatment (p = 0.63), bucket (p = 0.94), or sex (p = 0.67). HSM consumption was greater than SBM (237.7 ± 34.8g; p = 0.005) and BPP (37.0 ± 9.3g; p< 0.001) but was not different from RBP (299.1 ± 35.2g; p = 0.19). HSM consumption increased with each subsequent period (Period 1: 229.6 ± 33.4g; Period 2: 381.3 ± 27.1g; Period 3: 442.6 ± 17.2; p < 0.001). These findings indicate that HSM may be more palatable than SBM and BPP but similar to RBP. HSM consumption may continue to increase over time. HSM may serve as an acceptable replacement to more common feedstuffs used in equine rations.

Competing farm programs: Does the introduction of a risk management program reduce the enrollment in the Conservation Reserve Program?

AbstractGovernment‐supported farm programs can provide farm operators with different economic incentives regarding the use of their land. We study two US farm programs relevant to hay and pastureland, the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) and Pasture, Rangeland, and Forage (PRF) Index Insurance. Using county‐level enrollment and availability data, we find that the introduction of PRF reduces enrollment in CRP. This interaction potentially returns environmentally sensitive farmland back into production. We also document the heterogeneity of the effects over time and the dynamic effects across the length of exposure.

Minimum wage increases and agricultural employment of locals and guest workers

We estimate the impact of the minimum wage on US farm worker employment by exploiting state-level variation in recent minimum wage increases. A $1.00 increase in the minimum wage decreases the likelihood of employment for an individual farm worker by around one percentage point, with the effect concentrated among native and naturalized US citizens. However, we find no evidence of a relationship between minimum wage and either the number of farm workers or guest workers. The difference between these results may be due to lower international migration to high minimum wage states. Citizenship and immigration status can influence the impact of labor market regulations on the farm workforce.