US Dairy Farms Research Articles

Perceptions of dairy cow–handling situations: A comparison of public and industry samples

Inappropriate cattle handling poses a reputational threat to the dairy industry. To enhance social sustainability, handling practices must resonate with societal values about animal care. However, it has yet to be determined to what extent industry and public stakeholders differ in their perception of common cattle handling situations. We administered an online survey to samples of dairy industry (IND) and public (PUB) stakeholders to examine how they perceive a variety of cow-handling scenarios ranging from positive to negative in terms of effects on animal welfare. Participants were presented with 12 brief videos depicting a range of realistic cow-handling situations and responded to measures designed to assess their attitudes and beliefs about each scenario, their perception of the emotional response of the cows depicted in each scenario, as well as their own personal emotional response. Preexisting beliefs about cow treatment on US dairy farms and demographic data, including self-reported dairy consumption, were also collected and analyzed. Before viewing the videos, 52.9% of PUB (vs. 79.0% of IND) believed cows were treated well while 27.2% (vs. 9.0% of IND) believed cows were treated badly. Within IND, believing cows were treated badly was more common among nonwhites, those with greater formal education, more liberal politics, or from urban or suburban environments. In PUB, female and younger participants were more likely to believe cows were treated badly before viewing the videos. In both samples, participants with more positive preexisting beliefs about dairy cow treatment in the US reported consuming dairy products more frequently. In both PUB and IND, scenarios which were rated more positively for attitudes or for the cows' or respondents' emotional experiences were also perceived as more common. Within a given cow-handling scenario, qualitative attitudes (i.e., a positive, negative, or neutral valence) did not differ between the samples. In both samples, at the participant level, overall attitudes toward cow-handling scenarios were highly correlated with both their personal emotional response to the scenario and their perception of the cows' emotional responses. Although the participants' overall personal emotional responses did not differ between the samples, IND rated cows as experiencing more negative emotions overall. The consensus between industry and public stakeholders around dairy cow-handling practices observed in this study could provide a common starting point for addressing other, more contentious animal welfare issues.

Labor and Sustainability: The Role of Farm Labor Practices in Shaping Antibiotic Use☆

AbstractIn this study, we examine the role that human labor practices and attitudes play in mastitis infections on US dairy farms. Mastitis infection is a key barrier to sustainability in dairy production, contributing to financial losses, animal welfare concerns, and perhaps most importantly imprudent antibiotic use. We combine data from five sources on herd characteristics, owner/manager attitudes and behaviors, and labor management to empirically analyze the connections between labor practices and mastitis infection. We examine 72 conventional dairy farms in Pennsylvania, Florida, and Michigan using survey responses from both employees and owners/managers. We find that several labor practices and attitudes like communication, training, manager attitudes, and work intensity have important and meaningful associations with mastitis infection on dairy farms, in addition to conventional veterinary management practices. We also find that key labor practices are not associated with infection rates once we control for other factors. Our findings demonstrate the ways in which aspects of sustainability are intertwined on farms, particularly labor practices.

Financial risk and resiliency on US dairy farms: Measures, thresholds, and management implications

Given the revenue and cost volatility with resulting tight profit margins in dairy farming, it is increasingly important to measure, monitor, and understand farm financial risk. Solvency, liquidity, debt repayment capacity, and financial efficiency measures can reveal potential problem areas and assist in financial risk management. Financial risk is defined as uncertainty about interest rates, willingness of lender to keep or put money into the business, ability to meet cash flow needs, and the market value of collateral. Financial resilience is defined as the ability to withstand events that impact firm net income. Solvency was measured by equity to asset ratio. Liquidity was measured by current ratio. Repayment capacity was measured by debt coverage ratio. Financial efficiency was measured by operational expense ratio and net farm income ratio. Critical thresholds for these farm financial measures include those determined by US agricultural lenders since maintaining access to outside capital is important for farm financial management. To demonstrate these concepts and measure financial risk and resilience, this research uses farm data from a balanced panel of 105 New York dairy farms from 2010 through 2019. Results reveal that there were 4 average, 2 good, and 4 poor financial years for these operations on average as measured by farm profitability. Solvency positions were relatively stable being based on long-term asset and liability values. During the poor years, the percent of farms below danger thresholds for liquidity and debt repayment capacity spiked.

Hay provision affects 24-h performance of normal and abnormal oral behaviors in individually housed dairy calves

Dairy calves often perform abnormal repetitive behaviors (ARBs) including tongue rolling and nonnutritive oral manipulation (NNOM) when opportunities to perform feeding behaviors are restricted. Many US dairy farms limit access to milk, a well-studied risk factor for ARBs. However, farms also commonly do not feed forage to young calves, and the motor patterns of oral ARBs resemble those necessary for acquiring and chewing solid feed. Our objective was to assess how access to hay from birth influenced time engaged in normal and abnormal oral behaviors across 24 h. Holstein heifer calves were housed individually on sand bedding and fed ad libitum water and grain (control, n = 11) or given additional access to hay (hay, n = 11) from birth. Calves were fed 5.7 to 8.4 L/d (step-up) of milk replacer via a teat. At the start of step-down weaning (50 ± 1 d), all calves were given access to a total mixed ration. Feed and water intake were measured daily. Oral behaviors (eating, ruminating, sucking milk, drinking water, panting, grooming, tongue flicking, tongue rolling, and NNOM) were recorded by direct observation at wk 2, 4, 6, and 8 using 1-0 sampling at 1-min intervals for 24 h. Grain, hay, and water intake increased over time in the preweaning period. One polydipsic calf regularly consumed >10 L of water/d. During weaning, hay calves tended to consume increasingly more total mixed ration, significantly more water, and less grain than control calves. Access to hay led to more observations spent eating solid feed (7% vs. 5%, mean percentage of intervals) and ruminating (24% vs. 16%) during the preweaning period compared with calves fed only grain, though control calves appeared to ruminate in absence of forage to re-chew. Rumination occurred, to a large extent, overnight. Hay calves also spent less time self-grooming (12% vs. 14%), tongue flicking (14% vs. 18%), and performing NNOM (17% vs. 21%) than control calves. Although NNOM peaked around milk feedings, all 3 behaviors were performed throughout the day. Tongue rolling was rare across treatments, as was panting, which occurred most frequently around 1400 h. There were no behavioral differences during weaning (wk 8). Overall, we found that hay provision affected most oral behaviors that calves perform; it promoted natural feeding behaviors and reduced abnormal ones, suggesting hay should be provided. We also found that calves performed other behaviors, including polydipsia, repetitive grooming, and apparent sham rumination, that may suggest a degree of abnormality in these behaviors that has not been previously identified. These results highlight the importance of considering all oral behaviors to better understand calf welfare.

Assessing and reducing the environmental impact of dairy production systems in the northern US in a changing climate

CONTEXTTo meet the nutritional and environmental needs of a growing population, dairy producers must increase milk production while minimizing the farm-gate environmental impact and adapting to the effects of climate change. OBJECTIVEHere we comprehensively assess the effects of climate change on the environmental performance and productivity of three typical US dairy farms, and evaluate the potential benefits of adaptation strategies and implementation of Beneficial Management Practices (BMPs) for mitigating these effects and the potential increases in environmental impact. METHODSUsing the Integrated Farm System Model (IFSM), we predicted the productivity and environmental impact of these baseline farms under current emission scenarios and climate projections of 6 general circulation models (GCM), for high and low emission scenarios. We simulated farm-specific BMPs for current and future climate conditions for both unadapted and ‘adapted’ field cultivation plans, based on experiences from other climate locations. Finally, the IFSM predictions were compared to those of two other process-based models to test result robustness. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSWe find that the environmental impact of the three northern US dairy farms (New York, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin) generally increases by mid-century, if no mitigation measures are taken. Overall, feed production is maintained, as decreased corn grain yields are compensated by increased forage yields. Adoption of farm-specific Beneficial Management Practices can substantially reduce the GHG emissions and nutrient losses from dairy farms under current climate conditions and stabilize the environmental impact in future climate conditions, while maintaining farm productivity (milk and feed production). A comparison of three models corroborates the estimated reductions in methane and ammonia emissions associated with BMPs, as well as the relative trend in P-loss reduction. SIGNIFICANCEThis study provides a holistic assessment of the impacts of climate change on dairy production systems focusing on both feed production and environmental impacts. It demonstrates the interest of BMPs to both reduce GHG emissions and contribute to more resilient farming systems in a changing climate.

How does public perception of antibiotic use on dairy farms contribute to self-reported purchasing of organic?

The United States regulates the use of antibiotics in agricultural settings to address the global antibiotic resistance problem. Conventional dairy cows treated with antibiotics are kept in the herd and after the withholding period milk is harvested. On organic farms, the US organic standard on antibiotic use requires sick dairy cows to be treated, but treated cows must be removed from the herd and their milk can never again be sold as certified organic. This study investigated the US public's perceptions of the organic dairy farming, antibiotic use on dairy farms, and whether these perceptions affect consumer's self‐reported purchasing behavior for organic. We used a nationally representative phone‐based survey of 1000 US adults and characterized participants’ self‐reported (i) knowledge of the legality of antibiotic use on dairy farms (conventional and organic) and (ii) frequency of purchasing organic instead of conventional dairy products, as well as several demographic and other variables. The results indicated that participants’ knowledge about antibiotic use practices in dairy farming have no effect on their self‐reported purchasing behavior for organic or conventional dairy products. However, respondents who were familiar with the regulations of antibiotic use on dairy farms were more likely to oppose the US organic standard on antibiotic use in dairy farming and thought that past antibiotic use should not permanently remove a cow's organic status. These findings contribute to understanding of public perceptions that shape the US dairy organic market.Practical ApplicationIncome, employment, health and political values, but not consumers’ knowledge about antibiotic use in dairy farming, affect self‐reported purchasing behavior for organic dairy products. However, consumers who are familiar with the regulations of antibiotic use on US dairy farms disagree with the US organic standard on antibiotic use mandating loss of organic status for any cattle treated with antibiotics. These findings may be useful to organic markets.

Quantification of antimicrobial usage in adult cows and preweaned calves on 40 large Wisconsin dairy farms using dose-based and mass-based metrics

Use of antimicrobials in animal agriculture is under increasing scrutiny, but the quantity of antimicrobials used on large US dairy farms has not been evaluated using data from large farms and different metrics. This study investigated total antimicrobial usage (AMU) in adult dairy cows and preweaned calves (PWC) and contrasted 2 metrics used for measurement of AMU. Wisconsin dairy farms were eligible if they had >250 lactating cows, maintained computerized animal health records, and were willing to allow researchers access to treatment records. Animal health data for a 1-yr period was retrospectively collected from computerized records, and a farm visit was performed to verify case definitions and recording accuracy. Both dose-based (animal daily doses; ADD) and mass-based (total mg of antimicrobials per kg of body weight; BW) metrics were calculated at the herd, cow, and PWC levels. Descriptive statistics for AMU were examined for both age groups. Mean AMU was compared among active ingredients and route of usage using ANOVA models that included farm as a random variable. At enrollment, farms (n = 40) contained approximately 52,639 cows (mean: 1,316 ± 169; 95% CI: 975, 1657) and 6,281 PWC (mean: 180 ± 33; 95% CI: 112, 247). When estimated using ADD, total herd AMU was 17.2 ADD per 1,000 animal-days (95% CI: 14.9, 19.5), with 83% of total herd-level AMU in adult cows. When estimated using the mass-based metric, total herd AMU was 13.6 mg of antimicrobial per kilogram of animal BW (95% CI: 10.3, 17.0), with 86% of total AMU used in adult cows. For cows, 78% of total ADD (15.8 ADD per 1,000 cow-d) was administered as intramammary (IMM) preparations. In contrast, when AMU was estimated using a mass-based metric, IMM preparations represented only 24% of total AMU (12.1 mg of antimicrobial/kg of cow BW). For cows, ceftiofur was the primary antimicrobial used and accounted for 53% of total ADD, with 80% attributed to IMM and 20% attributed to injectable treatments. When estimated using a mass-based metric, ampicillin was the predominant antimicrobial used in cows and accounted for 33% of total antimicrobial mass per kilogram of BW. When AMU was estimated for PWC using ADD, injectable antimicrobials represented 79% of total usage (28.3 ADD per 1,000 PWC-d). In contrast, when AMU was estimated for PWC using a mass-based metric, injectable products represented 42% of total AMU, even though more farms administered antimicrobials using this route. When AMU in PWC was summarized using ADD, penicillin represented 32% of AMU, and there were no significant differences in ADD among ampicillin, oxytetracycline or enrofloxacin. When a mass-based metric was used to estimate AMU in PWC, oral products (sulfadimethoxine and trimethoprim-sulfa) represented more than half of the total AMU given to this group. Overall, these results showed that choice of metric and inclusion of different age groups can substantially influence interpretation of AMU on dairy farms.

110 Managing Feed Efficiency to Improve Dairy Farm Margin

Abstract Dairy farm margin has continued to be a challenge for the dairy industry. Several years of challenging milk prices with limited relief from high feed costs and increasing production cost have continued to erode the net margin of US dairy farms. As dairy producers continue to operate in a challenging economic environment, discoveries are being made in various farm efficiencies to improve farm margin. Increased management intensity on all aspects of the dairy farm is resulting in the discover of and improvement of many individual efficiency factors. Key areas of economic efficiency include feed, animal reproduction, replacement animals, labor and resource allocation. Often the answer to improved efficiency involves more than just reduced production cost, but also in the improvement of production to reduce the cost per unit of milk produced. Identifying and focusing on the important factors that can improve overall farm efficiency will enable producers to weather the economic challenges. For dairy producers, one of the complications is the biology of the dairy cow and understanding how to utilize the biology correctly for improved efficiency of milk production. Improved efficiency of milk production requires attention to details in many areas of the dairy. Identifying the correct areas of deficiencies, establishing corrective plans of action and then careful evaluation of the impact of changes are all key to the overall success of improving dairy farm margins and efficiencies.

182 The effect of previous lactation milk production on twinning prevalence in US dairy cows

Abstract The present study aimed to identify associations with previous lactation production on twinning prevalence in US dairy farms using data comprising over 7.9 million dairy calving and production records from 827 herds between 2001 and 2020. Inclusion criteria were breed (Holstein, Jersey, dairy and mixed cross), herd size (> 50 calvings/year), and 305-d milk production > 3,182 kg (7,000 lbs). Cows without previous production information or calving date were removed from the final data set, including all first lactation cows. Parity was grouped into 2 and 3+. Final data included n = 2,894,163 records from 2009 to 2020 from 577 herds in 24 states with average herd size from 50 to 14,948 calvings/year. Data were analyzed by logistical regression using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS with herd within state as random effects. Absolute 305-d milk production from each cow’s previous lactation, parity, breed, calving month, year, calving interval (CI), and interaction terms of production by parity, production by breed, CI by parity, and CI by breed were used as predictors for next lactation twinning prevalence. All fixed effects were significantly associated with the outcome (P < 0.001). Twinning prevalence was increased for higher levels of milk production within parity 2 and 3+ (OR: 1.067, 1.064; CL: 1.057–1.078, 1.054–1.075), and within Holstein, Jersey, mixed crossbreed, and dairy crossbreed (OR: 1.042, 1.068, 1.085, 1.07; CL: 1.038–1.046, 1.053–1.082, 1.056–1.114, 1.051–1.09). Parity 3+ had increased twinning compared to parity 2 (OR: 1.497; CL: 1.478–1.517). Holsteins had increased twinning compared to Jerseys (OR: 1.466, CL: 1.394–1.542). Year showed no clear trend. Twinning was increased for calving in spring/summer (April-September) with peak in June and July (OR: 1.377, 1.374; CL: 1.346–1.409, 1.344–1.405), correlating to conception months of September and October. These data can be instrumental to guide research focus and producer decisions to reduce twin births in lactating dairy cows.

Characterizing infectious disease progression through discrete states using hidden Markov models

Infectious disease management relies on accurate characterization of disease progression so that transmission can be prevented. Slowly progressing infectious diseases can be difficult to characterize because of a latency period between the time an individual is infected and when they show clinical signs of disease. The introduction of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP), the cause of Johne’s disease, onto a dairy farm could be undetected by farmers for years before any animal shows clinical signs of disease. In this time period infected animals may shed thousands of colony forming units. Parameterizing trajectories through disease states from infection to clinical disease can help farmers to develop control programs based on targeting individual disease state, potentially reducing both transmission and production losses due to disease. We suspect that there are two distinct progression pathways; one where animals progress to a high-shedding disease state, and another where animals maintain a low-level of shedding without clinical disease. We fit continuous-time hidden Markov models to multi-year longitudinal fecal sampling data from three US dairy farms, and estimated model parameters using a modified Baum-Welch expectation maximization algorithm. Using posterior decoding, we observed two distinct shedding patterns: cows that had observations associated with a high-shedding disease state, and cows that did not. This model framework can be employed prospectively to determine which cows are likely to progress to clinical disease and may be applied to characterize disease progression of other slowly progressing infectious diseases.

Effects of employer management on employee recruitment, satisfaction, engagement, and retention on large US dairy farms

Lack of employee engagement and satisfaction and high turnover rate of employees are major problems on some US dairy farms. Farm adoption of human resource management (HRM) practices varies widely. Using feedback from 168 employees from 12 large dairy farms, our objectives were to understand employee perceptions of HRM strengths and weaknesses and their influence on (1) employee satisfaction, (2) retention of employees, (3) willingness of employees to recommend the farm as a place to work, and (4) level of employee engagement on the farm. Employees who rated their employers higher for almost any management-related question (MRQ) were more satisfied in their jobs and more likely to recommend their place of work to other potential employees. Employees reported a higher intention to stay on the farm when employers scored higher on MRQs connected to employer-employee relationships. Employees who rated "Relationships" (a component consisting of 5 MRQs) higher were more likely to have a higher rate of satisfaction, were more likely to intend to stay at their job, and were more likely to recommend their place of work to others. No single management question was positively related to employee engagement (as measured by employees having and sharing ideas to improve the business); however, ethnicity, gender, job role, duration of employment, and employee's self-appraisal of their desire to learn and commitment to the farm were each associated with engagement. Female employees were less likely to provide ideas to their employers (compared with male employees), as were Spanish-speaking employees (compared with English-speaking employees). Differences between Spanish- and English-speaking employees were also present in measures such as intention to stay (shorter) and willingness to recommend the farm as a place to work (higher). Employees who rated themselves higher on their desire to learn and commitment to the farm were more likely to provide ideas to their employers, as were longer-term employees. In conclusion, we inferred that dairy farm management can improve employee retention and engagement through improved use of HRM practices.

Analysis of closed versus operating dairies in the southeastern United States

This study analyzed differences between dairies that have closed compared with dairies still operating in the southeastern United States. Significant changes have occurred in the US dairy industry in the last decade, involving the number of dairy farms, herd size, milk quality, and management practices, yet the dairy industry remains the fourth leading agricultural sector in the United States, with $38 billion of milk sales in 2017. Although the number of dairy cows in the United States has remained relatively constant over the past decade, at approximately 9 million head, the number of dairy operations has decreased by 30%, resulting in larger dairies. This trend is even more prevalent in the southeastern United States, where the number of dairies has decreased by 39% from 5,315 in 2008 to only 3,235 in 2017. Additionally, downward pressure on bulk tank somatic cell count, which is used as a milk quality metric and has implications regarding animal health, intensified with US processors' introduction of incentive and penalty systems for quality milk production, necessitating better management of mastitis in dairy herds. In this context, this study examines factors that affect southeastern US dairy farms' persistence in the industry by using primary survey data collected in 2013 through a mail survey of Grade A dairies in Georgia, Mississippi, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. Dairies that were no longer operational had exited the industry from 2007 through 2014. A probit regression was used to determine which farm and operator characteristics were associated with the dairy's operational status. Dairy farms with more cows and higher average milk production per cow were more likely to be operational. For an additional 10 kg/d of milk production per cow, the dairy was 1.5% more likely to be operational. For each 100 additional cows a dairy had, it was 4% more likely to be operational. The analysis also identifies nonpecuniary determinants of operational status for southeastern US dairies, such as mastitis management practices. Findings suggest that operations capable of leveraging scale effects are more likely to remain operational, with results affirming the consolidation of the US dairy industry and demonstrating that more productive farms are more likely to stay in operation. Results also suggest that factors other than farm size affect a dairy's operational status.

Selective dry cow therapy on US dairy farms

There is an opportunity to reduce antibiotic (ABX) use at dry-off in US dairy farms, as approximately 80% of herds practice blanket dry cow therapy (BDCT), despite most quarters (~80%) being uninfected at that time. Selective dry cow therapy (SDCT) strategies use screening tests to determine which quarters or cows require ABX treatment at dry-off. A small number of trials conducted in North America recently found that SDCT reduced ABX use by up to 60% without negatively impacting udder health, culling risk or milk production when compared to BDCT. However, more research is needed to validate SDCT before it can be widely implemented. The objective of this study was to compare 2 SDCT approaches (Culture-based or Algorithm-based) against BDCT in a multiherd randomized, positively controlled, clinical trial for the following outcomes; reduction in ABX use at dry-off, clinical mastitis (CM) risk, culling risk, milk yield, and somatic cell count (SCC) in the first 120 days in milk (DIM).

Investigation of the relationship between udder towel hygiene, udder towel management and intramammary infection in late lactation dairy cows

Pre-milking cleaning and teat disinfection is a common practice on US dairy farms. Studies have shown that towel laundering practices can influence levels of bacteria in towels that are used in teat preparation. Consequently, some laboratories offer towel culture services, which are used by practitioners to evaluate the effectiveness of towel laundering systems. However, the impact of poor towel hygiene on udder health is not well understood, and few surveys have been conducted to describe towel hygiene, or management strategies to improve towel hygiene, on US dairy farms.
 The objectives of this cross-sectional study are to: 1) describe the levels of bacteria in udder towels on US dairy farms, 2) describe associations between towel total bacteria count (TBC) and intramammary infection (IMI) prevalence for individual pathogens and specific pathogen groups in late lactation cows, 3) identify laundering-related risk factors for high towel bacteria count, and 4) identify critical levels of bacteria in towels, that might be used as cut-points to guide practitioners when interpreting towel culture reports. This study is ongoing, with results currently being assembled. In this abstract we report preliminary results.

Multidrug residues and antimicrobial resistance patterns in waste milk from dairy farms in Central California

Waste milk (WM) is a common source of feed for preweaned calves in US dairy farms. However, limited information is available about characteristics of this product, including concentration of drug residues and potential hazards from antibiotic-resistant bacteria present in the milk. The aims of this cross-sectional study were to (1) identify and measure the concentration of antimicrobial residues in raw WM samples on dairy farms in the Central Valley of California, (2) survey farm management practices for factors associated with the occurrence of specific antimicrobial residues in raw WM, (3) characterize the antimicrobial resistance patterns of E. coli cultured from raw WM samples, and (4) evaluate the potential association between WM quality parameter and risk of identifying drug residues in milk. A single raw bulk tank WM sample was collected from dairy farms located in California's Central Valley (n = 25). A questionnaire was used to collect information about farm management practices. Waste milk samples were analyzed for a multidrug residue panel using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Bacteria were cultured and antimicrobial resistance was tested using standard techniques; milk quality parameters (fat, protein, lactose, solids-not-fat, somatic cell count, coliform count, and standard plate count) were also measured. Of the 25 samples collected, 15 (60%) contained detectable concentrations of at least 1 antimicrobial. Of the drug residue-positive samples, 44% (11/25) and 16% (4/25) had detectable concentrations of β-lactams and tetracycline, respectively. The most prevalent drug residues were ceftiofur (n = 7, 28%), oxytetracycline (n = 4, 16%), and cephapirin (n = 3, 12%). No significant associations were identified between farm characteristics or management practices and presence of drug residues in WM. In this study, 20% of farms did not pasteurize WM before feeding to calves. Two of the 10 Escherichia coli isolated from WM samples were multidrug resistant. Streptococcus spp. (n = 21, 84%) was the most common genus cultured from WM samples, followed by Staphylococcus spp. (n = 20, 80%) and E.coli (n = 10, 40%). Mycoplasma spp. was cultured from 2 WM samples (n = 2, 8%). The presence of drug residues in WM at concentrations that increase selection of resistant bacteria indicates the need for additional studies targeting on-farm milk treatments to degrade drug residues before feeding to calves. The presence of multidrug-resistant E. coli in WM urges the need for on-farm practices that reduce calf exposure to resistant bacteria, such as pasteurization.

Evaluation by employees of employee management on large US dairy farms

Employees, many of whom are not native English speakers, perform the majority of work on large US dairy farms. Although management of employees is a critical role of dairy owners and managers, factors that improve employee engagement and retention are not well known. Objectives were to (1) identify key dairy farm employee management issues based on employee perceptions, (2) evaluate strengths and weaknesses of farms based on employee responses, (3) investigate differences between Latino and English-speaking employees, and (4) investigate differences in perception between employers and employees. Employees from 12 US dairy farms (each with a minimum of 10 employees) were interviewed by phone following a questionnaire provided. Employees provided their responses to 21 Likert scale questions and 8 open-ended questions. There was a wide range in employee turnover among farms (<10 to >100%). Latino employees had much shorter tenure and were more often employed in milking and livestock care than English-speaking employees. Employee perceptions differed among farms regarding whether they would recommend their farm as a place to work, teamwork within the dairy, whether rules were fairly applied, availability of tools and equipment, clear lines of supervision, and recognition for good work in the previous 15 d. Latino employees (n = 91) were more positive in many of these measures than their English-speaking counterparts (n = 77) but less often provided ideas to their employer on how to improve the business. Employers, surveyed on how they thought their employees would answer, underestimated employee responses on several questions, particularly the interest of employees in learning about dairy. When asked to cite 3 goals of the operation, there were differences among owners, managers, and employees. Although employees rated their commitment to the farm and their interest in learning as high, based on turnover, there was an obvious disparity between reality and ideal employee management. Consequently, employers should act on identified management shortfalls to improve employee retention.

Short communication: Identifying challenges and opportunities for improved nutrient management through the USDA's Dairy Agroecosystem Working Group

Nutrient management on US dairy farms must balance an array of priorities, some of which conflict. To illustrate nutrient management challenges and opportunities across the US dairy industry, the USDA Agricultural Research Service Dairy Agroecosystems Working Group (DAWG) modeled 8 confinement and 2 grazing operations in the 7 largest US dairy-producing states using the Integrated Farm System Model (IFSM). Opportunities existed across all of the dairies studied to increase on-farm feed production and lower purchased feed bills, most notably on large dairies (>1,000 cows) with the highest herd densities. Purchased feed accounted for 18 to 44% of large dairies' total operating costs compared with 7 to 14% on small dairies (<300 milk cows) due to lower stocking rates. For dairies with larger land bases, in addition to a reduction in environmental impact, financial incentives exist to promote prudent nutrient management practices by substituting manure nutrients or legume nutrients for purchased fertilizers. Environmental priorities varied regionally and were principally tied to facility management for dry-lot dairies of the semi-arid western United States (ammonia-N emissions), to manure handling and application for humid midwestern and eastern US dairies (nitrate-N leaching and P runoff), and pasture management for dairies with significant grazing components (nitrous oxide emissions). Many of the nutrient management challenges identified by DAWG are beyond slight modifications in management and require coordinated solutions to ensure an environmentally and economically sustainable US dairy industry.

Estimating milk yield and value losses from increased somatic cell count on US dairy farms

Milk loss due to increased somatic cell counts (SCC) results in economic losses for dairy producers. This research uses 10 mo of consecutive dairy herd improvement data from 2013 and 2014 to estimate milk yield loss using SCC as a proxy for clinical and subclinical mastitis. A fixed effects regression was used to examine factors that affected milk yield while controlling for herd-level management. Breed, milking frequency, days in milk, seasonality, SCC, cumulative months with SCC greater than 100,000 cells/mL, lactation, and herd size were variables included in the regression analysis. The cumulative months with SCC above a threshold was included as a proxy for chronic mastitis. Milk yield loss increased as the number of test days with SCC ≥100,000 cells/mL increased. Results from the regression were used to estimate a monetary value of milk loss related to SCC as a function of cow and operation related explanatory variables for a representative dairy cow. The largest losses occurred from increased cumulative test days with a SCC ≥100,000 cells/mL, with daily losses of $1.20/cow per day in the first month to $2.06/cow per day in mo 10. Results demonstrate the importance of including the duration of months above a threshold SCC when estimating milk yield losses. Cows with chronic mastitis, measured by increased consecutive test days with SCC ≥100,000 cells/mL, resulted in higher milk losses than cows with a new infection. This provides farm managers with a method to evaluate the trade-off between treatment and culling decisions as it relates to mastitis control and early detection.

T and B cell activation profiles from cows with and without Johne’s disease in response to in vitro stimulation with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis

Johne’s disease (JD) is a chronic wasting disease of ruminants caused by infection with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP). JD is particularly problematic on US dairy farms: estimates show that over 50% of farms are MAP-contaminated and as many as 91% of dairy herds could be infected. Although estimates vary widely, JD may cost the dairy industry between $200 million and $1.5 billion every year. One major obstacle to JD management is that JD is difficult to detect in many animals, in part due to the variable immunity against MAP demonstrated by JD+ cattle. To characterize the diversity of immune responses against MAP, peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 154 JD test negative and 96 JD test positive cows from the same dairy herds were stimulated with MAP in vitro. The activation of CD4+, CD8+ and γδ T cells and surface IgM+ B cells was measured using flow cytometry. CD4+CD45R0+ T cells, γδ+MHCII+ and γδ+MHCII- T cells and SIgM+ B cells from JD test positive cows all exhibited increased proportions expressing CD25 after MAP stimulation, while CD8+ T cells did not demonstrate increased CD25 expression in response to MAP.

The economics and productivity of US dairy farms that use crossbred vs non-crossbred breeding technology (production systems)

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the rise in crossbred cow numbers in the US dairy herd. Methods used look at well managed herds to see if crossbreeding provides a management tool that producers are using to maintain profitability.Design/methodology/approachThe authors estimate a Translog stochastic production frontier (SPF) for US dairy farms to examine the competitiveness of crossbred and non-crossbred dairy herds by system and region.FindingsThe bottom-line conclusion is that WM or highly efficient crossbred herds solidly compete on a financial basis with larger WM Western Holstein herds, the most technically efficient managed group, based on the SPF results in the authors’ study. The study finds that net return on assets for crossbred herds are not different from Western Holstein herds and that there is no significant difference in amount of milk per cow produced annually.Research limitations/implicationsBecause of a need to unmask the advantages of crossbreeding as a technology it was necessary to separate WM herds from poorly managed herds. That was done by frontier estimates that robustly ranked operation and corrected for endogeneity, tested for selectivity bias, and incorporated the NASS survey design.Originality/valueFor the first time, the 2010 Dairy Cost and Returns questionnaire version of the Agricultural Resource Management Survey (Dairy CAR) design allows researchers to expand survey observations to represent the vast majority of the US dairy farm population and to sort dairy farms into crossbred/non-crossbred herds.