Urinary Constituents Research Articles

Potential Utilization of Urine as a Power Source and Agricultural Resource; Waste to Wealth

Humans create an estimated 6.4 trillion litres of pee annually, which is often considered to be waste even though it has the potential to be a large source of liquid fertilizer, power, and other resources that may be used to grow the economy. This article addresses physicochemical properties, energetic value, hydrogen production methodology, socioeconomic uses, and sustainable energy sources for household use that might aid in the urea's conversion into hydrogen molecules at low-cost energy generation. The results of the laboratory examination of the examined urine showed 0.01% magnesium, 0.01% calcium, 0.03% uric acid, 0.04% ammonia, 0.1% sodium, 0.11% creatinine, 0.11% phosphate, 0.16% sulphate, 0.5% potassium, 0.61% chlorine, and 1.82% urea. Urea represents 52% of urine constituents with the highest concentration (1.82%), making it a significant source of clean fuel and the main producer of hydrogen gas. 1.08 g of hydrogen gas was produced from 15 litres of used urinals, and the amounts were 78.9 g, 146.2 g, 218 g, 289 g, and 343.5 g, respectively. In the same amount of time, a generator powered by gasoline consumes more fuel than one powered by hydrogen. Hydrogen burns more effectively than gasoline, using 33KW energy consumption compared to 33.5 MJ for the same amount of 1 kg of gasoline. When used as a generator fuel, Hydrogen is around 15% more efficient than gasoline. Hydrogen is a fully clean source of energy for both the industrial and home markets because its combustion yields solely water vapour.

Revealing degradation of organic constituents of urine during the electrochemical oxidation of ciprofloxacin via boron-doped diamond anode

Ciprofloxacin (CIP) is a widely prescribed fluoroquinolone antibiotic used to treat various types of infections, including respiratory and digestive diseases. However, after uptake, unmetabolized CIP is excreted through both urine and feces and persists in the aquatic environment due to its inefficient removal in municipal wastewater facilities. This accumulation causes potential risks to the health of living organisms. The present work reports a study on the remediation of CIP in synthetic urine by electrochemical oxidation (ECO) using an undivided cell with a boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode and a stainless-steel cathode. The heterogeneous hydroxyl radical BDD(OH) formed at the anode surface from water discharge, remaining adjacent to it due to its short half-life time, and the powerful free chlorine formed from Cl− oxidation were the pre-eminent oxidants. The influence of pH and current density (j) on CIP abatement was analyzed, rapidly attaining its overall removal at j ≥ 40 mA cm−2 within the pH range 3.0–9.0 thanks to the action of free chlorine. The CIP decay always obeyed a pseudo-first-order reaction. The uric acid contained in the synthetic urine was completely oxidized, whereas a partial destruction was found for the major component urea and a smaller destruction of creatinine. A moderate TOC reduction slightly ≥ 40% was determined at pH 3.0 and 7.0 for j = 100 mA cm−2. The main nitrogenated species released was NH3 and small contents of residual free chlorine were finally detected. The present study reveals a good oxidation power of the ECO process with a BDD anode to remediate synthetic urine contaminated with CIP.

Elimination of sulfadiazine and its metabolite from hydrolyzed urine by biochar activated periodate process: Lower environmental risk compared with CoFe2O4/peroxymonosulfate process

Source-separation and treatment of urine are recognized as promising strategies to recover nutrients, as well as reduce the stress of terminal wastewater treatment plants. As a ubiquitous constituent of urine, NH4+ has been demonstrated to induce the generation of nitro-byproducts in sulfate radical (SO4•−) dominated oxidation processes. In this work, wheat straw derived biochar (BCX, X represents the pyrolysis temperature) was prepared and adopted to eliminate sulfadiazine (SDZ) and its main human metabolite N4-acetyl-sulfadiazine (NSDZ) from hydrolyzed urine by coupling with periodate (PI). Specifically, BC800/PI process achieved excellent SDZ (0.190 h−1) abatement, which was more efficient than NSDZ. HCO3− and NH4+ significantly inhibited the removal processes whilst Cl− showed neglected effect. Both in situ and ex situ analysis excluded the dominant role of •OH, 1O2, O2•– and/or •IO3. Instead, electron-transfer regime driven by the high potential BC800-PI* complexes played a significant role. Interestingly, BC800/PI and CoFe2O4/peroxymonosulfate (PMS) (a typical SO4•−-dominated oxidation process) exhibited comparable removal efficiencies towards SDZ. Four nitro-byproducts were identified in CoFe2O4/PMS process but negligible in BC800/PI process during SDZ treatment, revealing the merit of BC800/PI process. Eventually, the toxicity prediction and bactericidal experiments further implied that BC800/PI process was eco-friendly. This study proposed a heterogeneous BC800/PI process for the treatment of source-separated urine and comprehensively demonstrated the advantages of its low costs and environmental risk.

Urine test strip analysis, concentration range and its interpretations of the parameters

Urinalysis is a simple urine analysis performed in many healthcare settings and at home that reveals important diagnostic information. Diabetes mellitus, kidney failure, renal, liver diseases, hydration, urinary tract infection, and metabolic abnormalities are among the diseases studied. Urinalysis is simple to perform using a urine test strip, but the results must be correctly interpreted. Urinalysis is a noninvasive, widely available, and reasonably priced method. A urine test strip is a paper or plastic dipstick with a chemically impregnated pad that is one of the simplest, cheapest, and most effective in vitro diagnostic devices for screening urine. The reference ranges, detection limits, and chemical analysis of common urine constituents such as occult blood, glucose, protein, ketones, leukocytes, nitrite, urobilinogen, bilirubin, pH, specific gravity, ascorbic acid, microalbumin, and creatinine are discussed in this article.

Metabolic profiling of silymarin constituents in urine and feces of healthy volunteers: A 90-day study

Metabolic profiling of silymarin constituents in urine and feces of healthy volunteers: A 90-day study

Analysis of absorbed constituents and network pharmacology research of Xiaoer Fupi Granules

Xiaoer Fupi Granules, a refined version of the classical prescription Shenling Baizhu Powder, has the effect of invigora-ting spleen, replenishing Qi, harmonizing stomach and resolving accumulation and is commonly used to treat Qi deficiency in spleen and stomach, disordered transportation and transformation, and indigestion of children. However, its medicinal constituents and mechanism remain unclear. We studied the main active constituents and action mechanism of Xiaoer Fupi Granules by integrating network pharmacology and prototype constituent analysis in vivo. This study will help to increase the reliability of database analysis results and lay a foundation for precise medication and mining of quality control markers. On the basis of Bioinformatics Analysis Tool for Molecular mechanism of Traditional Chinese Medicine(BATMAN-TCM), the "key chemical constituents-target" network was constructed. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with linear ion trap-orbitrap mass spectrometry(UPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS) was employed to analyze the absorbed constituents in rat urine and plasma, so as to validate the network. Further, we used BATMAN-TCM to construct the "absorbed constituents-target-pathway" network and explore the functioning mechanism of Xiaoer Fupi Granules. A total of 86 chemical constituents of Xiaoer Fupi Granules were predicted via BATMAN-TCM, among which only 18.6% were detected in rat plasma and urine. Accor-ding to the "absorbed constituents-target-pathway" network, 8 chemical constituents such as stearic acid and caprylic acid capable of regulating gastric acid and insulin secretion may be the critical constituents of Xiaoer Fupi Granules in invigorating spleen and harmonizing stomach. This study identified the critical active constituents and predicted the action mechanism of Xiaoer Fupi Granules, providing the reference for the research on the material basis of Xiaoer Fupi Granules.

Analytical toxicology of yew constituents in human blood and urine by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry.

The active, poisonous constituents in Taxus baccata, the yew plants, are taxine alkaloids whose main action is suggested to be a block of calcium and sodium channels. The main alkaloids are taxine B (30%) and taxine A (1.3%). Symptoms can include bradycardia, bradypnea, diastolic, and cardiac standstill. The current investigation reports the analytical toxicology of human blood and urine to confirm a suspected ingestion of yew needles. This includes the qualitative detection of several yew ingredients, including the main alkaloids, the validated quantification of 3,5-dimethoxyphenol, and the discussion of suitable analytical targets. After analyzing human specimens and yew needle extracts using the developed procedures, the five alkaloids 1-deotaxine B, taxicatin, taxine A, taxine B, and taxine I could be detected and tentatively identified. Finally, taxine A and B can be recommended as analytical targets besides 3,5-dimethoxyphenol.

Electrochemical oxidation of pharmaceuticals in synthetic fresh human urine: Using selective radical quenchers to reveal the dominant degradation pathways and the scavenging effects of individual urine constituents

Electrochemical oxidation of fresh human urine is a promising method to prevent pharmaceuticals from being discharged into the environment. Here, we evaluate the importance of electro-generated oxidants and direct anodic oxidation for degradation of four pharmaceutical (cyclophosphamide (CP), carbamazepine (CBZ), sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and ibuprofen (IBP)) accounting for the scavenging effect of urine constituents using boron-doped diamond (BDD) and IrO2 electrodes. Allyl alcohol and tert-butanol were used as selective quenchers for adsorbed and dissolved radicals, respectively. In electrolyte containing only chloride and pharmaceuticals, we found that CBZ and SMX are primarily oxidized by electro-generated Cl2 in the fluid boundary layer , and CP and IBP are primarily oxidized by physisorbed •OH or chemisorbed chlorine (IrO3-Cl). Regarding the effects of other fresh urine constituents, urea, creatinine, and uric acid quench the dissolved reactive chlorine species (Cl•/Cl2•‒, HOCl, Cl2, etc.). However, SO42‒ shows no effect on pharmaceutical degradation while H2PO4‒ and citrate ions quench IrO3-Cl resulting in a mixed kinetic and mass-transfer limiting oxidation of pharmaceuticals on IrO2. Citrate ions only quench the dissolved oxidants (surface adsorbed radicals are the dominant oxidants) leading to the pharmaceutical degradation limited by the mass transfer of pharmaceutical to BDD surface. This work provides an understanding of the significance of various pathways for pharmaceutical degradation, scavenging effect of urine constituents, and strategies for rapid pharmaceutical degradation in human urine.

Preventive and therapeutic effects of Aerva lanata (L.) extract on ethylene glycol-induced nephrolithiasis in male Wistar albino rats

ObjectiveNephrolithiasis is a common urological disease. This study aims to evaluate the preventive and therapeutic effects of hydro-alcoholic extract of Aerva lanata (L.) roots (HAEAL) on ethylene glycol-induced nephrolithiasis in rats. MethodsFifty grams of shade-dried coarsely powdered Aerva lanata (L.) root was successively extracted with organic solvents in increasing order of polarity [petroleum ether (60 −80 °C), chloroform, and ethanol] using a Soxhlet apparatus, and then concentrated. Physical tests including nature, color, odor, and texture were performed on the herbal suspension. In vitro nephrolithiasis assessment was performed by nucleation assay, aggregation assay, and crystal growth assay. Thirty adult male Wistar albino rats were randomly divided into five groups (six rats in each group). Group 1: negative control group without induction or treatment till day 28. Group 2: positive control group receiving a daily oral solution of 0.75% ethylene glycol till day 14, and mixed with distilled water till day 28. Group 3: standard group receiving a daily oral solution of 0.75% ethylene glycol till day 14 and Cystone (750 mg/kg) from day 15 to day 28. Group 4: low dose HAEAL group receiving a daily oral solution of 0.75% ethylene glycol till day 14, and 400 mg/kg HAEAL from day 15 to day 28 (1 mL per day). Group 5: high dose HAEAL group receiving a daily oral solution of 0.75% ethylene glycol till day 14, and 800 mg/kg HAEAL from day 15 to day 28 (1 mL per day). Urine (urine volume, pH value, appearance, odor, and turbidity) examination and serum test were performed. On day 29, the kidneys were dissected, and histopathology examination was performed to determine the degree of tubular injury. ResultsThe suspension showed stability and aroma with no turbidity at room temperature. The suspension did not show changes in color and odor until day 3, indicating that the preparation was stable for 72 h. Body weight decreased in the positive control group indicating stone formation and changes in water intake. Both standard and HAEAL treatments restored the body weight to normal levels after treatment, indicating the beneficial effects of the treatment. Histopathological examination revealed no significant findings in the negative control group, whereas the positive control group showed inflammation in the kidney parenchyma. Compared with positive control group, there was increase in urine volume and excretion of urinary constituents such as calcium and oxalate (P < 0.01) as well as improved clearance rate (P < 0.05) in HAEAL treatment groups, in addition, the urine pH value of HAEAL groups was increased. ConclusionHAEAL reduced nephrolithiasis formation and had a diuretic effect, which could be used to promote the expulsion of stones. Further studies are needed to enhance the stability of the suspension for the production of better pharmaceutical formulations.

Descriptive Profile of Urolithiasis Cases in a Tertiary Hospital in Sabah

Urolithiasis is a common urological problem in Malaysia. Stones can be formed by precipitation or crystallization of minerals and urinary constituents. It is a multifactorial, recurrent disease distributed worldwide with a trend of increasing incidence. This study aims to describe the characteristics of patients with urolithiasis in a tertiary centre in Sabah. Patients seen in the urology clinic or inpatient ward in the Department of Urology, Hospital Queen Elizabeth, Sabah, who had urolithiasis confirmed on plain CT KUB were reviewed. Demographic data regarding age, gender, race, address, and BMI were recorded. Details regarding fluid intake and family history of urolithiasis associated with medical conditions like diabetes, hypertension, and gout were collected during the interview with the patient. Routine urine and blood investigations for urolithiasis were performed, and results with CT scan findings were recorded in a data collection sheet. A total of 300 patients with urolithiasis were reviewed. The median age was 54 years, with similar gender distribution. BMI above normal was found in 69% of participants, and 55% had underlying hypertension. The highest incidence was seen in the Kadazan-Dusun population. Those who consume &lt; 2 L/day of fluid also had a higher frequency of urolithiasis. 60.6% of stones were unilateral, whereas 43.7% were found to be renal. There were 39.7% of patients who had CKD stage 2. The mean Hounsfield unit of stones was 1,091. In conclusion, urolithiasis is a common problem worldwide, and it is apparent that its burden on the healthcare system is increasing. These findings will help better understand local clinical characteristics to prevent and reduce morbidity and mortality by urolithiasis.

Acidification of 24-hour urine in urolithiasis risk testing: An obsolete relic?

BackgroundRecommendations on the optimal preservation of 24 h urine for the metabolic work-up in urolithiasis patients are very heterogeneous. In case two such tests with different storage condition recommendations are being analysed, multiple collections would be needed, challenging especially elderly and very young patients. We therefore aimed to evaluate the stability of urine constituents under different storage conditions. Material and methodsWe collected urine samples from ten healthy volunteers and prepared aliquots to be stored either at room temperature or 4 °C. Some aliquots were preserved using hydrochloric acid prior to storage, some thereafter, some using the BD Urine preservation tube and some were not preserved at all. Storage duration was 0, 24, 48 or 72 h. In all samples calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, creatinine, oxalate, citrate and uric acid were measured and compared to the according reference sample. ResultsWe could not find any significant deviation for any of the analytes and preanalytical treatment conditions compared to the associated reference sample. ConclusionPreservation of 24 h urine for the metabolic evaluation in stone formers might not be necessary for sample storage up to 72 h.

High levofloxacin removal in the treatment of synthetic human urine using Ti/MMO/ZnO photo-electrocatalyst

In this work, the degradation of the antibiotic levofloxacin (LFX) in synthetic urine by photoelectrolysis with a ZnO film-based electrode and a mixture of titanium and ruthenium metal oxides (Ti/MMO/ZnO) was investigated. From the morphological characterization of the Ti/MMO/ZnO electrode, it was found that it has porous nanostructures that are associated with its high surface area, contributing to the good photocatalytic activity of the material. Degradation assays showed that LFX removal in urine matrix is not selective, as some urine constituents such as creatinine and uric acid were also degraded with the antibiotic during photolysis and photoelectrolysis. Electrolysis was not able to degrade LFX and this may be related to the low concentration of oxidants generated in this process, due to the low applied potential (0.2 V). Although a significant synergistic effect between light and photoelectrocatalyst on LFX degradation was not observed, photoelectrolysis with Ti/MMO/ZnO was able to degrade more reaction intermediates at the end of the process without the formation of recalcitrant chlorine species, such as the ClO3–, when compared to photolysis. This shows that it is possible to remove antibiotic LFX from the urine matrix with high efficiency and without the formation of hazardous chlorine compounds using the Ti/MMO/ZnO photoanode.

Reactive High-Valent Iron Intermediates in Enhancing Treatment of Water by Ferrate.

Efforts are being made to tune the reactivity of the tetraoxy anion of iron in the +6 oxidation state (FeVIO42-), commonly called ferrate, to further enhance its applications in various environmental fields. This review critically examines the strategies to generate highly reactive high-valent iron intermediates, FeVO43- (FeV) and FeIVO44- or FeIVO32- (FeIV) species, from FeVIO42-, for the treatment of polluted water with greater efficiency. Approaches to produce FeV and FeIV species from FeVIO42- include additions of acid (e.g., HCl), metal ions (e.g., Fe(III)), and reductants (R). Details on applying various inorganic reductants (R) to generate FeV and FeIV from FeVIO42- via initial single electron-transfer (SET) and oxygen-atom transfer (OAT) to oxidize recalcitrant pollutants are presented. The common constituents of urine (e.g., carbonate, ammonia, and creatinine) and different solids (e.g., silica and hydrochar) were found to accelerate the oxidation of pharmaceuticals by FeVIO42-, with potential mechanisms provided. The challenges of providing direct evidence of the formation of FeV/FeIV species are discussed. Kinetic modeling and density functional theory (DFT) calculations provide opportunities to distinguish between the two intermediates (i.e., FeIV and FeV) in order to enhance oxidation reactions utilizing FeVIO42-. Further mechanistic elucidation of activated ferrate systems is vital to achieve high efficiency in oxidizing emerging pollutants in various aqueous streams.

Electrochemical N-Acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase Urinalysis: Toward Sensor Chip-Based Diagnostics of Kidney Malfunction.

N-Acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (GlcNAcase) is a valuable biomarker for kidney health, as an increased urinary level of the enzyme indicates cell damage within the renal tubular filtration system from acute or chronic organ injury or exposure to nephrotoxic compounds. Effective renal function is vital for physiological homeostasis, and early detection of acute or chronic renal malfunction is critically important for timely treatment decisions. Here, we introduce a novel option for electrochemical urinalysis of GlcNAcase, based on anodic differential pulse voltammetry at boron-doped diamond disk sensors of the oxidizable product 4-nitrophenol (4NP), which is released by the action of GlcNAcase on the synthetic substrate 4NP-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminide (GlcNAc-4NP), added to the test solution as a reporter molecule. The proposed voltammetric enzyme activity screen accurately distinguishes urine samples of normal, slightly elevated and critically high urinary GlcNAcase content without interference from other urinary constituents. Moreover, this practice has the potential to be adapted for use in a hand-held device for application in clinical laboratories by physicians or in personal home health care. Evidence is also presented for the effective management of the procedure with mass-producible screen-printed sensor chip platforms.

The Satisfaction of Patients with the Management of Kidney Stones in Malaysia: A Qualitative Study

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Background: </strong>Kidney stones form by the precipitation or crystallization of minerals and urinary constituents. It is a common problem worldwide manifested with recurrent intermittent pain episodes, surgical interventions, and medication consumption which affect the patients&rsquo; quality of life. The current study explored patients&rsquo; satisfaction with the management of kidney stones disease, along with their experience with the treatment. <strong>Methods:</strong> Qualitative face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted with kidney stones patients from Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia in January 2018. Interviews were verbatim transcribed and thematic content analysis was carried out to understand the phenomena of patients&rsquo; experiences. <strong>Results:</strong> The fifteen patients who were interviewed judged their health and clinical outcomes based on several aspects. They build perceptions and make opinions based on outcomes including whether the disease is cured or not, relief of symptoms, prevention of disease progression, or absence of symptoms relapse, and whether the diagnostic and follow-up tests became normal. Based on the interviews, most patients were more satisfied with medical treatment than interventional treatment. <strong>Conclusion: </strong>The satisfaction towards the management of kidney stones was influenced by the treatment option chosen for each patient, expectations and perceptions of the treatment and disease, and healthcare system-related issues. This understanding could improve targeted support and therapy provided by health care providers so patients can better deal with the many disputes they face during suffering from kidney stones. <p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Key words: </strong>Satisfaction, Perception, Kidney stones, Interview, Qualitative research.

Are individual analyses of multiple short urine collections throughout the 24 hours superior to a standard 24‐hour urine collection in precipitation risk assessment of healthy subjects?

The commonly used 24-hour collection technique has been the mainstay of diagnosis for supersaturation but has some certain limitations. Hence, superiority of multiple short urine collections as a new alternative in precipitation risk assessment was assessed compared to the standard 24-hour urine collection among healthy subjects. Individual urine samples of 26 healthy subjects were acquired every 2 to 3 hours throughout the 24 hours. Urine samples were obtained and the time and volume of each sample were recorded. Urinary constituents involved in precipitation including, sodium-potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphate, citrate, magnesium, urea, creatinine and pH were measured. A simulated 24-hour collection was recalculated by the totalling of all shorter urine collections volume and urinary constituents excretions throughout the day. Urine pH, urine creatinine and precipitation rate had a significantly lower values in 24-hours urine collection compared to one individual value of multiple urine collections by -0.769 (P < .0001), -7.305 (P < .0001), and - 12.838 (P < .0001), respectively. However, calcium (2.697, P < .0001), citrate (3.54, P < .0001), total phosphate (19.961, P < .0001) and total creatinine (9.579, P < .0001) had statistically significantly higher values in the 24-hours urine collection compared to individual value of multiple urine collections. Based on the results, individual analysis of multiple shorter urine collections throughout the day improves the ability of identifying supersaturation points, precipitation risk zones and may potentially improve risk assessment compared to the 24-hour urine collection method.

Uromodulin aggravates renal tubulointerstitial injury through activation of the complement pathway in rats.

Uromodulin (Umod) is the most abundant constituent of urine in humans and exclusively found in the kidney tubular epithelium. However, the specific role of Umod in renal tubulointerstitial injury is yet to be understood. The present study was conducted with aim of investigating the potential therapeutic mechanism of Umod in the regulation of renal tubulointerstitial injury. Protein expression of Umod in renal tubular epithelial cells was measured with the conduction of Western blot analysis. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunofluorescence assaywere performed to detect the complement activation products and the activation products of surface deposition. The expression of C1q, C2, C4, B factor, C3, C5, H factor, CD46, CD55, C3aR, and C5aR were determined with the use of reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reactionand Western blot analyses. Subsequently, the unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) rat model was established. Renal tubulointerstitial injury was assessed with the application of hematoxylin-eosin staining and Masson staining in rats. UUO rats and normal rats were injected with si-NC or si-Umod and complement inhibitor. UUO rats were observed to have serious impairment of kidney tubule, renal tubular dilation, and epithelial atrophy, with downregulated Umod and activated complement pathway. Silencing of Umod resulted in the activation of complement system while promoting interstitial fibrosis in renal tubules. Moreover, addition of complement inhibitor significantly alleviated the renal tubule injury and fibrosis. Collectively, our study suggests that silencing of Umod mediates the complement pathway, exacerbating renal tubulointerstitial injury in rats, which provides insight into the development of novel therapeutic agents for renal tubulointerstitial injury.

Simultaneous determination of asarinin, β-eudesmol, and wogonin in rats using ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and its application to pharmacokinetic studies following administration of standards and Gumiganghwal-tang.

Asarinin, β-eudesmol, and wogonin have common antiangiogenic activities and have the potential for use in chemotherapy. Besides, they are multivalent substances that are combined in various herbal medicines. The purpose of this study was to develop a method for simultaneous analysis of asarinin, β-eudesmol, and wogonin, which are representative pharmacological components of Asarum heterotropoides, Atractylodes lancea, and Scutellaria baicalensis, respectively, in rat biosamples using ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The three components were separated using 5 mm aqueous ammonium acetate containing 0.1% formic acid and acetonitrile as a mobile phase, equipped with a KINETEX core-shell C18 column. The analysis was quantitated on a triple-quadrupole mass-spectrometer employing electrospray ionization, and operated in the multiple reaction monitoring mode. The chromatograms showed high resolution, sensitivity, and selectivity with no interference with plasma, urine, and feces constituents. The developed analytical method satisfied international guidance criteria and could be successfully applied to the pharmacokinetic (PK) studies evaluating oral bioavailability of asarinin, β-eudesmol, and wogonin after oral and intravenous administration and their urinary and fecal excretion ratios after oral administration to rats. Furthermore, the analysis was extended to PK studies following oral administration of Gumiganghwal-tang. This study was the first simultaneous analysis of the aforesaid three constituents in rat plasma, urine, and feces that also determined their PK parameters.

Preparation and characterization of a decentralized modular yellow water nutrient recovery system

The peculiarity of human urine as a resource, in terms of ethical and cultural considerations, and human perception, demands the development of a highly decentralized modular system, to enable the feasibility of the emerging concept of nutrient recovery in this regard. Consequently, a modular reactor, with packed bed of granular Gastropod shell (GS) was constructed for nutrient recovery from yellow water and the operational parameters were derived in simulated and pilot studies. Prior to the design of the modular reactor, both the raw and calcined GS were screened in a batch reactor for nutrient fraction recovery (i.e. total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN)). The TP recovery was more favorable than the TN, but the TN recovery was the rate determining step. Despite the low TN capture efficiency of the reactor, the hydrolysis of the urea fraction that promotes nitrogen loss from yellow water was greatly impeded. The system showed higher selectivity for the nutrient fraction than the other constituents of the human urine, as manifested in the high residual COD and creatinine values in the treated yellow water. The volume of yellow water treated and the nutrient recovery capacity of the modular reactor were HRT dependent. A diminution in the nutrient recovery efficiency was observed in the pilot study, when compared with the simulated studies of the same HRT.

Biochemical examination of Deoni cow urine

Urine of cow is elaborately used in ancient Ayurvedic scriptures such as Charaka samhita, Shushruta samhita, and Brahad-Wagbhatt. A number of diseases can be cured by use of medicines derived from the cow. Thus, the current research work was aimed to study the biochemical constituents of Deoni cow urine. The Deoni cows were divided into two groups, each group containing six cows. The physical and chemical examination of cow urine was done. The result shows the cow urine contain all essential biochemical constituents within normal range.