Urban Energy Use Research Articles

Analysis of New Urban Planning Based on Green Ecological Economics

With the development of social economy, the urbanization of the world has presented a new development trend. The green, ecological, and economic city has gradually attracted people's attention. How to plan new cities and towns to coordinate economic development with nature has been the focus of domestic and foreign scholars. Based on this premise, this article elaborates the domestic and foreign research status of ecological city and puts forward a new type of green ecological civilization from the perspective of evolution of civilization. From the perspective of green ecological economy, the evolution of China's urban planning is studied in terms of the urban and rural areas, nature, pollution, industry, culture, and other aspects. To accumulate experience, green ecological planning in New York is also analyzed at multiple levels, such as urban expansion, energy, and urban water use. According to the development of our country in the past 30 years, the development strategy of urbanization suitable to China's national conditions is introduced on the basis of ecological economy. From the perspective of green ecological planning and economy, practice has proved that new urban planning is able to promote the establishment of a resource-saving society, to enhance the coordinated development of the population, resources, environment, and economy, and to comprehensively improve people's quality of life.

Structural, geographic, and social factors in urban building energy use: Analysis of aggregated account-level consumption data in a megacity

Residential and commercial buildings comprise approximately forty percent of total energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions in the U.S. Yet, while California spends $1.5 billion annually on energy efficiency programs, limited research has explored how building energy consumption varies within cities, including the social and structural factors that influence electricity and natural gas use. We present results from an analysis of aggregated account-level utility billing data for energy consumption across the over two million properties in Los Angeles County. Results show that consumption in L.A. County varies widely with geography, income, building characteristics, and climate. Several higher-income areas have greater total energy use per building even in cooler climates, while many lower-income regions rank higher for energy use per square-foot. Energy consumption also correlates with building age, which varies widely throughout the region. Our results demonstrate the many complex and interrelated factors that influence urban energy use. While billing data is critical for devising energy efficiency programs that actually realize estimated savings and promote more sustainable cities, opening access to such data presents significant challenges for protecting personal privacy. The presented approach is adaptable and scalable to cities seeking to develop data-driven policies to reduce building energy use.

Technology Capacity Assessment Tool for Developing City Action Plans to Increase Efficiency in Mid-sized Cities in Europe

Transition towards energy efficient cities requires an effective upgrade of all the different areas of urban energy production, distribution and use. The paper presents a method for collecting the information required for analysing the technical variation of strengths and weaknesses in infrastructure capabilities in European medium-sized cities, as well as to help identify best practices and tools for enhancing the energy performance of city energy systems.

Quantifying and managing urban water-related energy use systemically: case study lessons from Australia

In this paper, three Australian case studies contribute to improved understanding of water-related energy quantification and management. A systems analysis of urban water in South East Queensland (Case Study 1) demonstrates the energy impact of water end use. In Melbourne (Case Study 2), water–energy interlinkages are explored within households. Finally, Case Study 3 in Sydney shows how abatement curves can help guide management action. Collectively, the case studies provide new information for least-cost solutions and simultaneous water and energy efficiency. The work highlights the need for frameworks to characterize and evaluate both the direct and indirect energy influences of urban water.

The Contribution of Energy-Optimized Urban Planning to Efficient Resource Use–A Case Study on Residential Settlement Development in Dhaka City, Bangladesh

This study examines and explores the contribution of an energy-optimized urban planning approach to efficient resource use in the context of Dhaka city, Bangladesh. A conceptual energy optimization model called the “EnUp” model has been developed and tested for feasibility and adaptation strategies to improve urban energy use in residential settlements. This study is based on a system analysis and grounded theory approach that involved field methods including key informant (KI) interviews and collection of data and information from local urban planning offices and other secondary sources. Results show that the adoption of an energy-optimized planning approach is possible and necessary in Dhaka city. The “EnUp“ model can be applied in new urban settlement planning and retrofitting existing urban settlements. Ensuring various stakeholders' participation, technical inputs, and adaptability could make this innovative model and approach replicable in many other cities in the world. The study facilitates a better documentation and visualization for comprehensive urban planning and energy planning process in developing countries, while providing useful insights to policy makers, planners, developers, and interested urban stakeholders in the transition to urban sustainability.

Interaction relationship between urban domestic energy consumption and water use – a case study of Beijing and Shanghai

Energy consumption and water use are inextricably linked. Combining research on energy consumption and water use in an urban context provides a scientific basis for the integrated planning of energy and water supply systems. Domestic energy and water are among the most consumed resources in urban environments. Furthermore, domestic resources represent an increasing proportion of the total resources consumed. This paper explores four key indicators of urban energy consumption (UEC) and water use in Beijing and Shanghai for the period of 2000 to 2011. Using correlation analysis, this study establishes the intrinsic relationship between UEC and water use. It also offers an analysis of the consumption trends of these two resources as well as their interactive relationship. The results show that urban domestic energy consumption (UDEC) and water use have a significant linear correlation: UDEC is positively correlated with water use, and the correlation coefficients of Beijing and Shanghai are 0.81 and 0.97, respectively. In Beijing, urban domestic energy and water use per capita are negatively correlated, with the high correlation coefficient of 0.93. In Shanghai, urban domestic energy and water use per capita are positively correlated, with the correlation coefficient of 0.90.

Energy and sustainable development in cities: A case study of Bogotá

Developing energy solutions that positively impact issues related to economic growth, the environment and social equity in cities is important. A better understanding of urban energy use, particularly in developing countries, can strengthen energy security, climate change mitigation and local pollution abatement. This study seeks to evaluate the trends in energy use and CO2 emissions in Bogotá by determining energy flows through input and output analyses. The study establishes a relationship between energy and sustainable development by applying correlation analyses. Bogotá consumes 24% of the electricity produced in the country, generates 96010.1 TJ of the gross energy, and emits CO2, NOx and CO (carbon monoxide). Correlation analyses indicate a strong and direct relationship between energy, economic variables and social variables, with the majority of the correlation coefficients exceeding 0.8. Strong positive correlations are particularly observed between energy consumption, the gross domestic product, the human development index and CO2 emissions. Energy per capita and CO2 emissions per capita also strongly correlate with the human development index and GINI coefficients. These results demonstrate that energy increasingly influences the development, economic growth and welfare of the city population. Thus, formulating strategies that will improve energy use in cities is important.

A sustainable urban form: The challenges of compactness from the viewpoint of energy consumption and carbon emission

The construction sector has grown to have the second-highest energy consumption in China, smaller only than the industrial sector. The objective of this paper is to explore whether compactness is sustainable city form from aspects of urban household energy use carbon emission (UHEUCE). To eliminate social influence as much as possible, we designated a standard family whose social conditions represent the entire city average. Normalized compactness index, connectivity of green space (GS) and water bodies (WB), and accessibility to GS and WB by households were selected as quantitative indicators related to urban sprawl. These indicators were quantified using remote sensing and geophysical information system methods. Urban sprawl aspects of compactness were positively correlated with UHEUCE. The other urban sprawl form indicated by GS and WB connectivity had the same positive correlations with UHEUCE. The greater the GS and WB accessibility, the less UHEUCE. This indicates that designing cities to be compact with less accessibility to GS and WB may increase household energy consumption. Substantial use of GS and WB, even if they are fragmented, will reduce carbon emission from residential energy use. This study provides useful implication toward achieving scientific landscape plans for low carbon city construction.

Global typology of urban energy use and potentials for an urbanization mitigation wedge

The aggregate potential for urban mitigation of global climate change is insufficiently understood. Our analysis, using a dataset of 274 cities representing all city sizes and regions worldwide, demonstrates that economic activity, transport costs, geographic factors, and urban form explain 37% of urban direct energy use and 88% of urban transport energy use. If current trends in urban expansion continue, urban energy use will increase more than threefold, from 240 EJ in 2005 to 730 EJ in 2050. Our model shows that urban planning and transport policies can limit the future increase in urban energy use to 540 EJ in 2050 and contribute to mitigating climate change. However, effective policies for reducing urban greenhouse gas emissions differ with city type. The results show that, for affluent and mature cities, higher gasoline prices combined with compact urban form can result in savings in both residential and transport energy use. In contrast, for developing-country cities with emerging or nascent infrastructures, compact urban form, and transport planning can encourage higher population densities and subsequently avoid lock-in of high carbon emission patterns for travel. The results underscore a significant potential urbanization wedge for reducing energy use in rapidly urbanizing Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.

Urban energy consumption: Different insights from energy flow analysis, input–output analysis and ecological network analysis

Energy consumption has always been a central issue for sustainable urban assessment and planning. Different forms of energy analysis can provide various insights for energy policy making. This paper brought together three approaches for energy consumption accounting, i.e., energy flow analysis (EFA), input–output analysis (IOA) and ecological network analysis (ENA), and compared their different perspectives and the policy implications for urban energy use. Beijing was used to exemplify the different energy analysis processes, and the 42 economic sectors of the city were aggregated into seven components. It was determined that EFA quantifies both the primary and final energy consumption of the urban components by tracking the different types of fuel used by the urban economy. IOA accounts for the embodied energy consumption (direct and indirect) used to produce goods and services in the city, whereas the control analysis of ENA quantifies the specific embodied energy that is regulated by the activities within the city’s boundary. The network control analysis can also be applied to determining which economic sectors drive the energy consumption and to what extent these sectors are dependent on each other for energy. So-called “controlled energy” is a new concept that adds to the analysis of urban energy consumption, indicating the adjustable energy consumed by sectors. The integration of insights from all three accounting perspectives further our understanding of sustainable energy use in cities.

How fuel prices determine public transport infrastructure, modal shares and urban form

Urban form and transportation infrastructure mutually influence each other. For example, dense Hong Kong is served by a viable and efficient public transit network, whereas many sprawled US cities are best served with automobiles. Here we present a simple model of a mono-centric city with two modes, public transit and automobiles, and transport infrastructure investments. The contribution to the literature is two-fold. First, adding to urban economic theory, we analyze how public transport costs are endogenously determined by fuel price and urban form if an urban planner provides the infrastructure. But a private mass transport provider would underinvest into public transport infrastructure. Second, adding to the ongoing discussion on urban transport and energy use, this two-modal model can help to explain empirical observations on urban form, transport CO2 emissions and modal share, emphasizing the causal role of transport costs for urban form. The results encourage further research in the economics of sustainable and energy-efficient cities.

The Effect of Urban Form and Residential Cooling Energy Use in Sacramento, California

The impact of urban form on residential space-conditioning energy use has been controversial in recent planning literature. This study empirically evaluates the association between urban form and residential energy use, focusing particularly on residential electricity use for space cooling in the City of Sacramento, California. We characterize urban form, property conditions, and demographic and socioeconomic characteristics by applying spatial metrics embedded within a geographic information system where LiDAR data effectively include each building and the surrounding vegetation. A statistical model is applied to assess the relationship between these explanatory variables and the estimated summer air-conditioning energy use. Controlling for other variables, higher population density, east—west street orientation, higher green space density, larger vegetation on the east, south, and especially the west sides of houses, appears to have statistically significant effects on reducing summer cooling energy use. This study quantifies the built environment impact on the energy demand of air conditioning and informs planners as they craft urban planning and design policies for energy conservation.

Spatial planning and transport energy transition towards a low carbon system

In recent years, transport-related carbon emissions in cities have been increasingly recognized as a vital issue in relation to climate change. A transition in urban transport energy use has been called for by both politicians and the public. The use of less energy generally and greener energy if possible have been widely accepted by planners as the two goals of this transition. However, the question of whether and how we can achieve these goals through spatial planning remains debatable. This paper conducts a literature review examining the role of spatial planning in the transition in urban transport energy use. Four major aspects of spatial planning are discussed with regard to its influence on this transition: effectiveness, efficiency, equity and enforcement. Furthermore, the four main elements of the urban transport energy transition process will be addressed: instruments, individuals, institutions and the complex interactions between them. Ultimately, it is difficult to say whether spatial planning can play an efficient role in assisting the transition in urban transport energy use. However, it is clear that if it is to do so, it must be supported by proper policy instruments and enforced in a manner that changes current human practices and market conditions in the field of transport. Dealing with sociotechnical uncertainties in the process of transition is another challenge to spatial planning. More innovative approaches are needed if spatial planning practice is to assist in the transition towards a low carbon urban transport system and a low carbon city.

Multi-scale integrated assessment of urban energy use and CO2 emissions

Accurate and detailed accounting of energy-induced carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is crucial to the evaluation of pressures on natural resources and the environment, as well as to the assignment of responsibility for emission reductions. However, previous emission inventories were usually production- or consumption-based accounting, and few studies have comprehensively documented the linkages among socio-economic activities and external transaction in urban areas. Therefore, we address this gap in proposing an analytical framework and accounting system with three dimensions of boundaries to comprehensively assess urban energy use and related CO2 emissions. The analytical framework depicted the input, transformation, transfer and discharge process of the carbon-based (fossil) energy flows through the complex urban ecosystems, and defined the accounting scopes and boundaries on the strength of ‘carbon footprint’ and ‘urban metabolism’. The accounting system highlighted the assessment for the transfer and discharge of socio-economic subsystems with different spatial boundaries. Three kinds methods applied to Beijing City explicitly exhibited the accounting characteristics. Our research firstly suggests that urban carbon-based energy metabolism can be used to analyze the process and structure of urban energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Secondly, three kinds of accounting methods use different benchmarks to estimate urban energy use and CO2 emissions with their distinct strength and weakness. Thirdly, the empirical analysis in Beijing City demonstrate that the three kinds of methods are complementary and give different insights to discuss urban energy-induced CO2 emissions reduction. We deduce a conclusion that carbon reductions responsibility can be assigned in the light of production, consumption and shared responsibility based principles. Overall, from perspective of the industrial and energy restructuring and the residential lifestyle changes, our results shed new light on the analysis on the evolutionary mechanism and pattern of urban energy-induced CO2 emissions with the combination of three kinds of methods. And the spatial structure adjustment and technical progress provides further elements for consideration about the scenarios of change in urban energy use and CO2 emissions.

Domestic energy use in England and Wales: a 3D density grid approach

Household energy use is of relevance for studies of sustainability and fuel poverty. Detailed mapping and spatial analysis is possible in the UK due to the release of fine-scale household energy-use data. The cartographical approach used here focuses on urban energy use and the relative performance of urban areas in England and Wales. The energy-use data were transformed to a 1 km2 grid of cells allowing consistent comparisons to be made between urban areas at the same zonal scale. Additionally cells were extruded according to population density, highlighting basic relationships between density and energy use. The urban perspective on energy use is important due to the strong influence of the built environment in determining energy efficiency, and furthermore due to the clustering of affluent and deprived social groups in cities. The results of the mapping highlight how the lowest and the highest energy-use districts are located within the same city-regions, and how further variations in energy use relate to housing density and energy-efficiency behaviours.

Water and energy futures for Melbourne: implications of land use, water use, and water supply strategy

This paper quantifies the effect of three policy levels on the water and energy futures of Melbourne, Australia. During a time of severe water shortages attributed to climate change, water strategies lacked consideration of energy consequences. Modeling, guided by urban metabolism theory, demonstrated that a compact urban form, reduced water consumption by 90 GL/a, compared with a sprawling city, and had greater water conservation impact than simulated demand management measures. Household water conservation, coupled with increased use of solar hot water systems, reduced grid energy use by some 30 PJ/a. Desalination, tripled water supply energy demand, growing to a total of 4.5 PJ/a, by 2045. While the increase is less than 1% of total Melbourne urban energy use, it contributes to a substantial increase in the energy bill for urban water provision. Importantly, the energy impact could be offset through demand management measures. Recommendations for the combined management of water and energy include improving energy characterization of the urban water cycle; impact-evaluation of regional plans; using total urban water and energy balances in analysis to provide context; and developing reporting mechanisms and indicators to help improve baseline data across the water and energy systems.

Urban Form and Residential Energy Use

The effect of urban form on residential energy use has attracted much research, but it may be difficult to grasp the conclusions of that research because of inconsistencies in scope and methods employed. This article reviews the literature on how urban form affects residential energy use, particularly energy for space-conditioning (heating and cooling). Climate-responsive design principles are examined first and linked to research on how several factors affect residential energy use: housing type, density (physical compactness and dwelling unit density), community layout (street orientation and building configuration), and planting and other surface coverage. The research on each of these factors is summarized under three categories: experiments, simulation modeling, and statistical analysis of empirical data. Finally, implications for future research are discussed and suggestions for planning are made.

Effects of natural environment on urban household energy usage carbon emissions

The residential household becomes an important contributor to carbon emissions under rapid urbanization. This study analyzes the relationship between urban residential energy usage carbon emission and the natural environment in Xiamen, southeast China, using integrated residential data from survey questionnaires and remote sensing and GIS techniques. We first eliminate household social, economic and construction impacts by establishing a standardized family and choosing housing units constructed after the year 2003. We then use ordinary least squares regression to explain the effect of buildings’ surrounding natural conditions on urban energy usage carbon emissions. The results show that urban home energy usage carbon emissions were reduced by green spaces and water bodies, after building construction and household social and economic impact factors were eliminated. Water bodies show a closer relationship with carbon emissions than green spaces. These results prove that green spaces and bodies of water are important in residential energy usage carbon emission reduction. Therefore, better green space and water planning will improve sustainable urban development.

Urban residential energy use in Kandahar, Afghanistan

The paper presents an insight to the household energy consumption in urban Afghanistan, and is based on household surveys conducted in one of its growing cities – Kandahar. The analysis shows that the energy consumed in residential sector has the major share in the total energy consumed in urban Afghanistan. About 72% of the total residential energy is spent for cooking purposes, and firewood is still the predominant form of energy with a share of around 58% for different end uses. Details on current energy process and the energy expenditure for different income levels have been presented. Although the total energy consumption in urban household is relatively lower in Afghanistan, the paper argues that the increase in consumption and transition to modern fuels is likely with increased urbanization, socioeconomic development and improved electricity supply. Against the backdrop of likely increase in energy use, the issue of sustainability becomes significant and therefore, policies are key to ensuring energy development taking into consideration sustainability concerns.

Urban transport and CO2 emissions: some evidence from Chinese cities

The work presented below was conducted as part of the World Bank's economic and sector work titled ‘Urban Transport and Climate Change’. It is first a compendium of data—most of it collected as part of the ‘China–GEF–World Bank Urban Transport Partnership Program’—and also provides a preliminary analysis of urban transport characteristics, energy use, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for a diverse set of cities in China. This working paper is not in itself intended to be a strategy for urban transport and climate change in China. It is the view of the authors that this research could be an input toward the development of such a strategy in China and more broadly. Although transport in general, and urban transport in particular, is acknowledged to be an important and growing source of GHG emissions, work still needs to be done to develop robust and standardized datasets and frameworks to support a decision‐making process. The paper is intended as a background document to support ongoing discussions about a climate change strategy and to establish a dataset to be made available as a platform for future studies and further refinement. It is hoped that others will take advantage of the dataset created for this study and use it as a basis for projections, comparative analysis, and to test their own hypothesis. Reviewers of this paper have also raised many specific possibilities and interesting ideas for further work, which are summarized in the conclusions. The authors would particularly like to thank AusAID (the Australian Government's overseas aid program), ESMAP (Energy Sector Management Assistance Program), and GEF (Global Environment Facility) who provided partial financing for this work. The authors would also like to acknowledge the management of the World Bank's Sustainable Development units in East Asia & Pacific Region and Latin American & the Caribbean Region for their support.This article is categorized under: Energy Efficiency > Systems and Infrastructure Energy Infrastructure > Systems and Infrastructure Energy and Climate > Systems and Infrastructure