Urban Amenities Research Articles

Raw Material Stage Assessment of Seating Elements as Urban Furniture and Eco-Model Proposals

As cities strive to become sustainable, it is imperative to consider even the smallest components of the urban environment and prioritize sustainability. Ensuring the sustainability of urban furniture, especially the numerous benches found in cities, is crucial. This study proposes an alternative solution to the sustainability issue in cities regarding urban furniture. This is because a review of the literature indicates that while efforts have been made to evaluate the sustainability of urban amenities and furniture, studies conducting life cycle analysis specifically for urban furniture are lacking. This study will contribute to the identified gap in the literature by analyzing 14 different seating elements in recreational areas located in the city of Rize, Turkey, using the Ccalc program to calculate their carbon footprints. In the subsequent phase of this study, an eco-design process will be conducted based on the findings, aiming to create an eco-seating unit design. Based on the data obtained, materials with high environmental impact were identified, material replacement recommendations were made, and consequently, a model proposal was presented. The potential reduction in carbon footprints with the use of transformed materials was discussed. The findings revealed that carbon footprint values were particularly high in the seating units where concrete and polypropylene materials were used. Additionally, it was determined that solvent paint, especially varnish, affects the carbon footprint, and it was recommended that would be used in its natural form, which is eco-friendly. In conclusion, the recommendations developed for the sustainability of urban furniture in coastal areas will contribute to the future of cities and humanity.

Urban amenity and urban economic resilience: evidence from China.

Under the influence of multiple uncertain factors at home and abroad, urban amenities, as the underlying support for urban renewal activities, are of great significance in enhancing urban economic resilience. The panel data of Chinese cities from 2011 to 2019 is used in this study. Urban amenity is measured from artificial amenities and climate amenities, respectively. By using a two-way fixed effects model, we empirically test the impact of urban amenities on urban economic resilience. The key findings of this study are as follows. (1) Urban amenities can significantly enhance urban economic resilience. (2) Heterogeneity analysis shows that there are regional differences in the role of urban amenities in promoting urban economic resilience, with cities in the eastern region, strong environmental regulations, and high urbanization rates benefiting more. (3) We further find that urban amenities mainly enhance economic resilience by promoting population agglomeration, attracting labor migration, improving the quality of human capital, and stimulating urban innovation. Our conclusions recommend to rationally allocate and optimize urban amenity resources, strengthen urban planning and construction management, and create a more livable urban environment, thereby enhancing urban economic resilience.

Compact city and urban planning: Correlation between density and local amenities

Many scholars and planners emphasise the role of compact cities in sustainable urban development. Compact urban form is seen as a way to encourage people, for example, to drive less and walk more, which reduces transport-related GHG emissions. This argument, however, is strongly dependent on local amenity development that can support such local living. In plan-making, a common practice is to try to ensure the realisation of services with a high Gross Floor Area (GFA) residential infill development to raise the local population density. In this paper we are seeking quantitative insight on the resolution under which urban density, as measured by GFA volume, correlates with the growth of urban amenities and liveability. Specifically, we are seeking the direction in which correlation changes when moving from a larger geographical scale (low resolution) towards a smaller scale (high resolution) of walkable reach. Our study shows a clear correlation between urban amenities and planned GFA at low-resolution scales, but that correlation decreases at higher-resolution scales (walkable neighbourhood level), indicating that urban amenities tend to cluster in different locations than density is planned. Based on these findings, we argue that, if the aim of urban planning is to foster the growth of local amenities, it should shift its focus towards larger patterns of urban development rather than emphasising GFA in detailed plan-making.

Development of a contextualized index of multiple deprivation for age-friendly cities: Evidence from Hong Kong

Deprivation refers to the state of having unmet basic needs, defined by societal standards. We argue that the mono emphasis on material deprivation is insufficient, as the characteristics of physical and social environments play a crucial role in either accelerating deprivation or providing additional resources/support to compensate for lack of income or basic household demands. We extend the focal point of the multiple deprivation framework to Hong Kong, an ultra-dense metropolis experiencing rapid demographic aging. We construct a Hong Kong index of multiple deprivation with seven domains. Highly deprived neighborhoods are likely to be located in areas with ultra-high residential density, where living conditions are substandard (e.g., subdivided units). Urban areas that used to have a large proportion of resettlement and industrial lands are likely to become deprived owing to the uneven distribution of urban amenities and the fragmentation of residential areas by industrial land.

Landscaping as an object of administrative and legal protection in the Russian Empire in the XVIII century

The object of the study is the improvement of urban space in the prism of its administrative and legal protection by the state. The subject of the study is the changes in the content of the term "landscaping" during the eighteenth century. The author examines in detail such aspects of the topic as the jurisdiction of the supervisory function for offenses in the field of landscaping, as well as the varieties of these violations themselves. The analysis of normative legal acts issued by the Russian rulers makes it possible to determine which elements of public life they included in the concept of landscaping, which persons were responsible for the execution and control of compliance with established requirements. Approaches to the organization of landscaping in the capital and provincial cities of the Russian Empire are being studied. The author examines the continuity in the organization of urban planning and landscaping activities during the XVIII century. Both general scientific and special scientific research methods were used in the preparation of the work. Among the general scientific methods, analysis and synthesis were most widely used. Among the special scientific methods, the historical and legal method is of key importance, since the subject of the study involves the study of historical documents published in the Russian Empire in the XVIII century. The main conclusions of the study are the provisions that it was in the XVIII century that the origin and formation of landscaping as an object of administrative and legal protection took place. Started as a struggle with the population who did not want to accept the new realities of urban life, landscaping activities were gradually transformed into an obligatory element of the implementation of state government on an equal footing with the administration of justice and tax collection. The novelty of the research lies in looking at the history of the development of the Russian state in the XVIII century through the prism of urban amenities. With the modernization of Russian society, the cities in which this community lived changed at the same time. A sharp increase in the population led to the emergence of new and aggravation of existing problems. Epidemics and fires in densely populated cities had much more devastating consequences, therefore, in order to prevent them, it was necessary to bring urban amenities to a new level.

Impacts of virtual amenities on residential relocation and decentralization of megacity: An empirical study in wuhan, China

Clarifying the impact of urban virtual amenities (VAs) based on online and offline services on residents and urban spaces is important in the context of mobile internet access. However, the measurement of VA usage and its association with urban space have limited its theoretical development. This study identifies relocation directions through changes in residential locations and measures the four types of VA usage via mobile app data. An ordered logistic regression model is constructed to measure the correlation between VA usage and residential locations. The results show a significant association between VA usage and residential location. Residents who use VA-shopping are inclined to live outside the central region, while the opposite is true for residents who use VA-life and VA-public service. Because the users and usage intensity of VA-shopping are greater than those of other services, we summarize the VAs that drive outward relocation and urban decentralization because virtual amenities liberate the constraints on residential mobility imposed by the proximity of functional urban amenities. The findings are informative for understanding urban spaces under mobile ICTs and conducting behavior research on virtual-real interactions.

Navigating Post-COVID-19 Social–Spatial Inequity: Unravelling the Nexus between Community Conditions, Social Perception, and Spatial Differentiation

The 2023 SDGs report underscores the prolonged disruption of COVID-19 on community living spaces, infrastructure, education, and income equality, exacerbating social and spatial inequality. Against the backdrop of the dual impact of significant events and the emergence of digital technologies, a coherent research trajectory is essential for characterizing social–spatial equity and understanding its influential factors within the urban planning discipline. While prior research emphasized spatial dimensions and mitigated spatial differentiation to ensure urban equity, the complexity of these interconnections necessitates a more comprehensive approach. This study adopts a holistic perspective, focusing on the “social–spatial” dynamics, utilizing social perception (sentiment maps) and spatial differentiation (housing prices index) pre- and post-pandemic to elucidate the interconnected and interactive nature of uneven development at the urban scale. It employs a multi-dimensional methodological framework integrating morphology analysis of housing conditions, GIS analysis of urban amenities, sentiment semantic analysis of public opinion, and multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) analysis of correlation influential factors. Using Suzhou, China, as a pilot study, this research demonstrates how these integrated methods complement each other, exploring how community conditions and resource distribution collectively bolster resilience, thereby maintaining social–spatial equity amidst pandemic disruptions. The findings reveal that uneven resource distribution exacerbates post-pandemic social stratification and spatial differentiation. The proximity of well-maintained ecological environments, such as parks or scenic landmarks, generally exhibits consistency and positive effects on “social–spatial” measurement. Simultaneously, various spatial elements influencing housing prices and social perception show geographic heterogeneity, particularly in areas farther from the central regions of Xiangcheng and Wujiang districts. This study uncovers a bilateral mechanism between social perception and spatial differentiation, aiming to delve into the interdependent relationship between social–spatial equity and built environmental factors. Furthermore, it aspires to provide meaningful references and recommendations for urban planning and regeneration policy formulation in the digital era to sustain social–spatial equity.

Unlocking Urban Accessibility: Proximity Analysis in Bangkok, Thailand’s Mega City

Accessibility serves as the fundamental link for mode shifts, enabling access to activity areas and facilitating connections to other forms of travel. However, navigating the transportation network in urban areas of Bangkok, Thailand, reveals persistent inconveniences, discomfort, and safety concerns, thereby failing to adequately meet the needs of users. This study aims to examine urban accessibility, focusing on multi-travel connections to amenities and public transport. It focuses on understanding how the level of engagement of road users in social activities contributes to well-being by addressing proximity access through a multidisciplinary approach aimed at enhancing accessibility and integrating the built environment. The comprehensive and inclusive Accessibility by Proximity Index (API) is proposed as a tool to evaluate the level of access to essential services and activities for residents. Additionally, this study acknowledges the impact of the physical and utilization characteristics of urban space and active trajectories by considering various travel needs and daily route patterns. Consequently, the API can inform the development of planning and urban design strategies aimed at enhancing walkability and cycling as non-motorization infrastructures, thereby improving accessibility through active modes of transportation. It was observed that areas with a higher concentration of urban amenities exhibit greater accessibility by walking, cycling, and public transport, particularly in inner-city areas. Thus, envisioning a more sustainable and inclusive city with adequate development of public transportation access is essential in urban areas, prompting policy-level initiatives to enhance the environment and elevate the overall commuting experience.

Investigating the civic emotion dynamics during the COVID-19 lockdown: Evidence from social media

While quality environments (e.g., greenery) have been widely reported to alleviate residents' psychological stress during COVID-19 quarantines, this study argues that roles of the built environment and other commonly found emotion determinants can vary or reverse under strict lockdowns when human mobility is seriously restricted. We took Shanghai’s "citywide static management" as a case study and scraped over 100,000 Weibo posts between February and July 2022 to capture civic emotions before/during/after the lockdown. Natural Language Processing (NLP) was applied to grade the unique “helplessness” sentiment along with other negative emotions. Spatial regressions were utilized to investigate their determinants. We present three controversial findings: 1) Quality environments (e.g., perceived greenness, sky view) alleviated negative emotions before/after the lockdown but exacerbated stress during the lockdown, indicating that residents become more vulnerable when they lose superior access to urban amenities for which they have paid price premiums; 2) Sociodemographics’ impact on negative emotions varied significantly throughout three lockdown phases, with the elderly experiencing increased stress when losing access to emergency services; 3) Housing prices and rents inversely correlated with negative emotions (higher housing price indicated richer social resources), implying the complex interplay between residents’ socioeconomic status and well-being. Our data-driven approach effectively retraces local voices and discloses civic emotions, informing more human-centric urban management strategies to facilitate social sustainability in the face of future crises.

Travel Characteristics of Urban Residents Based on Taxi Trajectories in China: Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Wuhan

With the advancement of urban modernization, more and more residents are flocking to large cities, leading to problems such as severe traffic congestion, uneven distribution of spatial resources, and deterioration of the urban environment. These challenges pose a serious threat to the coordinated development of cities. In order to better understand the travel behavior of metropolitan residents and provide valuable insights for urban planning, this study utilizes taxi trajectory data from the central areas of Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Wuhan. First, the relationship between daytime taxi drop-off points and urban amenities is explored using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS). Subsequently, Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) techniques were applied to identify spatial differences in these urban drivers. The results show that commonalities emerge across the four cities in the interaction between external transport stops and commercial areas. In addition, the average daily travel patterns of residents in these four cities show a trend of “three peaks and three valleys”, indicating the commonality of travel behavior. In summary, this study explores the travel characteristics of urban residents, which can help urban planners understand travel patterns more effectively. This is crucial for the strategic allocation of transport resources across regions, the promotion of sustainable urban transport, and the reduction in carbon emissions.

Spatial Disparity and Residential Assessment of Housing Cost-Burdened Renters

With the expanding rental sector and rising housing expenses, this research aims to compare the socio-demographic, economic, and housing statuses of renters burdened by housing costs in four regions, and also to explore predictors affecting their residential assessment. Using data from the 2020 Korean Housing Survey, this cross-sectional study identified 245 cost-burdened households whose housing expenses accounted for more than 25% of their total gross income and living expenses. The results revealed that the majority of renters were single-person households residing in single-room occupancy units of multifamily housing, primarily comprising unemployed older adults aged 50 and over. While earning less than half of the minimum wage, the renters’ living expenses fell well below the minimum cost of living, and more than 40% of the expenditure was spent on housing costs, resulting in cost-overburdened households. With the correlation between income, deposit, and rent, the burden of housing costs and the quality of the residential environment varied among regions. Indeed, the residential assessment of the renters was significantly influenced by urban amenities, and both income deficits and excessive housing cost burdens required inclusive and prompt housing interventions including housing assistance, provision of affordable public housing, income transfer, and transitions from renting to Chonsei arrangements.

The Inter-Relationships of Territorial Quality of Life with Residential Expansion and Densification: A Case Study of Regions in EU Member Countries

High-density urban development is promoted by both global and local policies in response to socio-economic and environmental challenges since it increases mobility of different land uses, decreases the need for traveling, encourages the use of more energy-efficient buildings and modes of transportation, and permits the sharing of scarce urban amenities. It is therefore argued that increased density and mixed-use development are expected to deliver positive outcomes in terms of contributing to three pillars (social, economic, and environmental domains) of sustainability in the subject themes. Territorial quality of life (TQL)—initially proposed by the ESPON Programme—is a composite indicator of the socio-economic and environmental well-being and life satisfaction of individuals living in an area. Understanding the role of urban density in TQL can provide an important input for urban planning debates addressing whether compact development can be promoted by referring to potential efficiencies in high-density, mixed land use and sustainable transport provisions. Alternatively, low-density suburban development is preferable due to its benefits of high per capita land use consumption (larger houses) for individual households given lower land prices. There is little empirical evidence on how TQL is shaped by high-density versus low-density urban forms. This paper investigates this topic through providing an approach to spatially map and examine the relationship between TQL, residential expansion, and densification processes in the so-called NUTS2 (nomenclature of terrestrial units for statistics) regions of European Union (EU) member countries. The relative importance of each TQL indicator was determined through the entropy weight method, where these indicators were aggregated through using the subject weights to obtain the overall TQL indicator. The spatial dynamics of TQL were examined and its relationship with residential expansion and densification processes was analysed to uncover whether the former or the latter process is positively associated with the TQL indicator within our study area. From our regression models, the residential expansion index is negatively related to the TQL indicator, implying that high levels of residential expansion can result in a reduction in overall quality of life in the regions if they are not supported by associated infrastructure and facility investments.

Villages in the City – Urban Planning for Neighbourhood Love

AbstractThe city comprises of a wide variety of heterogeneous territorial units (e.g. districts or neighbourhoods). In many – especially larger – cities, social capital assets (like community bonds) are mirrored at the level of neighbourhoods which form the home for many sociocultural communities or distinct socio‐economic classes. We postulate in this study that the big city is essentially an ‘archipelago’ made up of ‘urban villages’. We analyse the residents' perceived attractiveness regarding their daily local neighbourhood by introducing the concept of ‘village love’ (or ‘neighbourhood love’), inspired by the recent literature on ‘city love’ (comprising ‘body’, ‘soul’ and ‘community’ constituents of urban life). Based on an extensive and detailed multi‐annual database for all neighbourhoods in Rotterdam, the present paper seeks to identify the background factors shaping ‘village love’ in the city, with particular attention to the citizens' subjective appreciation for and access to a great variety of (physical and immaterial) urban amenities shaping the place‐based satisfaction of residents. The theoretical framing of our research resembles the basics of traditional central place theory here transmitted to the urban space in which local proximity to amenities plays a key role. A wide array of relevant amenities impacting on the place‐specific well‐being feelings (‘village love’) of residents in various neighbourhoods in the city of Rotterdam is distinguished using inter alia‐rich multi‐annual survey data. This approach is empirically tested and verified by means of LISA statistics and advanced spatial econometric dependence models (‘urbanometrics’). The findings confirm the usefulness of a central place interpretation of ‘urban village love’ in the city.

Rethinking the nexus between urban amenities and migrants’ hukou transfer intentions in China: the role of the hukou value

ABSTRACT The household registration (hukou) system differentiates China from Western countries regarding restrictions on internal migration, the allocation of public resources, and the country’s urbanization and development patterns. Although studies have investigated the influence of urban amenities on China’s internal migration, limited attention has been given to clarifying the intricate role of hukou values behind these amenities. The research revisits the influence of amenities on migrants’ hukou transfer intentions with an analytical framework dividing amenities into two categories, those related to hukou and those unrelated, and incorporating the role of the hukou value of the city. Econometric results indicate a significant influence of amenities related to hukou (basic education, health care) and those unrelated (urban consumption, temperature, cultural inclusion, transportation facilities). It also reveals a moderating effect of hukou value, reflected in the strengthened influence of hukou-related amenities, while such an effect is less apparent for amenities unrelated to hukou. Compared to amenities unrelated to hukou, hukou-related amenities mainly have indirect effects moderated by hukou value but less direct influence. Heterogeneity analysis of skilled and less-skilled migrant groups and robustness checks are also conducted. Our findings provide policy implications for China to deepen the future hukou reform.

Platform Urbanism and “Splintering Amenitization”: An Analysis of Canadian Cities

This article engages with the spatialities of platform urbanism by foregrounding where digital platforms are located in cities. Drawing on a geocoded data set of visible, material traces of platformization collected across neighborhoods in Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal, we consider the influences that characteristics of urban built environments—including existing amenities, urban morphology, and area-level socioeconomic factors—have on platforms’ locations. Through a Poisson regression of these variables, we find that the presence of existing urban amenities most strongly explains the locations of material traces of urban platformization on the cityscape at the city block scale. We position platforms themselves as a novel amenity class that extends emplaced utility and lifestyle functions to urban residents. In so doing, we contend that the platformization of urban landscapes constitutes a form of “splintering amenitization,” wherein platformized urban amenities demonstrate spatial patterns of colocating with other, existing urban amenities in already amenity-rich areas to the exclusion of amenity-poor enclaves. This, we argue, is important because neighborhoods’ abilities to attract amenities are central to how enclaves both position themselves and compete for status within urban spatial hierarchies.

Is Poverty Concentrated in Shanghai? Spatial Patterns in Social Housing and Their Implications for Social Equality in Chinese Cities

It is of general concern how poverty concentrates in cities, due to its close association with social equality issues. This research explores this topic at a citywide level. Spatial data of social housing regarding 2008 to 2020 in Shanghai are utilized to examine how the concentration patterns for low-to-moderate-income groups have changed. Multiple methods including spatial autocorrelation analysis, location quotient (LQ), and Mann–Whitney U test were employed to assess the spatial distribution of, and concentration patterns in, social housing, as well as investigating whether the spatial distribution of urban resources was equitable for residents in social housing. We found that the low-to-moderate-income groups were previously concentrated at the boundary of central city and then gradually deconcentrated into a relatively even pattern. However, it is important to note that this process has not effectively facilitated social equality due to the unequitable distribution of urban resources. Consequently, we recommend that policy makers in developing countries pay particular attention to site selection for social housing and the distribution of urban amenities in the future.

Reinventing Sustainable Neighborhood Planning: A Case Study of Le Rheu, France

This study focuses on sustainable development in urban planning and develops a 21st century sustainable neighborhood. For empirical neighborhood design, urban design was conducted on a specific 5.2 ha site in Le Rheu Commune, France. Targeting a site with the attributes of ecologically based sustainable urban planning, this study derived a neighborhood design model using sustainable development strategy methods from environmental, economic, and social perspectives. Consequently, an infrastructure-based design was created, integrating and accommodating the infrastructure and various urban amenities necessary for the neighborhood. Additionally, infrastructure within the neighborhood was proposed as a design element for technology-based sustainable urban planning. This is a novel, empirical study based on urban planning theory. This theory-based empirical research model contributes to urban planning theory and the knowledge of urban planners and architects. Future studies should conduct urban planning research that combines sustainable neighborhood planning based on ecological infrastructure, as attempted in Le Rheu Commune, with the IoT, such as smart home care.

Diffusion of Innovations in the Far East of Russia during the Late 19<sup>th</sup> to Early 20<sup>th</sup> Centuries (by the Example of Electrification)

The article analyzes the historical conditions, identifies channels, agents and features of the distribution of innovative products in the Russian Far East during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, using electrification as an example. It determines the role of electro-technical innovations in the modernization process of the region, highlighting the favorable historical conditions that developed for the diffusion of innovations in the Far East. The government policy, which aimed at opening up the Far Eastern economy and attracting foreign entrepreneurs, as well as the high susceptibility of the Far Eastern population to innovations, accelerated diffusion processes. The primary agents and translators of innovations were foreign nationals, particularly entrepreneurs from Germany. The study concludes that the diffusion processes of electrical innovations became the most crucial element of the modernization of the region, playing a critical role in forming the Far Eastern industry, developing urban amenities, changing everyday culture and improving the population's quality of life. The historical experience of electrification of the Far East at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries shows that the diffusion of innovations occurs as Russia moves along the path of modernization, its readiness for openness and strengthening contacts with foreign countries.

ІНТЕГРАЦІЯ ПРИНЦИПІВ SMART-CITY ТА ЗАПРОВАДЖЕННЯ ЕНЕРГЕТИЧНИХ ІННОВАЦІЙ У ПРОЦЕС ПІСЛЯВОЄННОЇ ВІДБУДОВИ БЛАГОУСТРОЮ АДМІНІСТРАТИВНО-ТЕРИТОРІАЛЬНИХ ОДИНИЦЬ

The article explores the possibilities and challenges of integrating Smart City principles and energy innovations into the post-war reconstruction process of administrative-territorial units. In today's world, where environmental pollution and efficient use of energy resources are becoming increasingly critical, implementing energy-efficient projects in urban development has become necessary for community development. One of the essential aspects of successfully implementing energy-efficient projects is their integration into the city's strategic planning. To address challenges such as financial constraints and technical difficulties, implementing energy-efficient projects will bring numerous benefits, including emission reduction, energy consumption reduction, and improvement of urban environment quality. Since many urban amenities in Ukraine having suffered damage during the war, there is an increased opportunity for the restoration of progressive and modern spaces using advanced technologies. This new stage of reconstruction includes adopting innovative approaches, such as using alternative energy sources, implementing energy-saving systems, introducing Smart City principles, greening territories, and more. This opens up opportunities for creating modern, environmentally friendly, and energy-efficient spaces that improve the quality of life and restore administrative-territorial units' infrastructure. The article explores key concepts such as smart technologies, energy efficiency, and sustainable development while presenting the fundamental principles and mechanisms for implementing these principles in the post-war reconstruction of Ukraine. Utilizing the case-study method, the article highlights the best practices for implementing Smart City principles worldwide. Additionally, the authors examine the advantages and obstacles associated with adopting these principles.

Dynamic equity in urban amenities distribution: An accessibility-driven assessment

The continual challenges exist in attaining an equitable allocation of urban amenities. In order to render this objective attainable as well as practical in real-world scenarios, it is imperative to transition from a static conceptualization of equity to a dynamic notion of equity. To assess dynamic equity in the context of Dhaka, we collected data for two distinct time periods, 2005 and 2018, and calculated integrated accessibility indices using enhanced two-step floating catchment area method. We then responded to these questions: a) Has there been an increase in the level of accessibility? b) Is the changed accessibility being shared more equally or unequally? c) Do members of underprivileged groups enjoy greater access than members of privileged groups? d) Is the underprivileged population enjoying progressively increasing access over time? The results indicate the distribution of accessibility exhibits a pattern, wherein individuals belonging to the underprivileged group experience lower accessibility benefits, while individuals in the privileged group enjoy better accessibility. The sole reason for optimism regarding the distribution pattern lies in the narrowing of the accessibility gap between the privileged and underprivileged. Moreover, the accessibility distribution becomes more equal within the underprivileged group, while becoming more unequal within the privileged group.