Upper Montane Forest Research Articles

Termite assemblages in two distinct montane forest types at 1000 m elevation in the Maliau Basin, Sabah

Termites were surveyed at an altitude of 1000 m in Maliau Basin, Sabah (Borneo), in two primary forest habitats: lower montane forest and stunted facies of upper montane forest. Soil, wood, litter, termite nests, and arboreal microhabitats up to a height of 2 m above ground were sampled using a belt transect protocol. Two transects were run in each forest type. The upper montane forest transects collected 11 and 13 species, compared with 15 and 19 in the lower montane forest transects. With the addition of species records from casual sampling (conducted with roughly equal effort in each forest type), totals of 18 species were found in the upper montane forest, and 34 species in the lower montane forest. Similar species richness and relative abundance of wood-feeding termites were found in both forest types. However, the lower montane forest had greater richness and relative abundance of species that feed on soil and extremely decayed soil-like wood. This difference is attributed mainly to (i) the well developed, organic-rich soils of the lower montane forest being more suitable for soil-dwelling and mound-building termites compared with the upper montane forest which has sandy soils with a thick covering of peat, and (ii) the low-stature and open canopy of the upper montane forest creates microclimatic conditions which are adverse for soil-feeding termites compared with the high, closed canopy in the lower montane forest. As expected, comparisons with similar studies in lowland forests in Southeast Asia confirmed that the upland forests are relatively depauperate.

Fire regimes and forest changes in mid and upper montane forests of the southern Cascades, Lassen Volcanic National Park, California, U.S.A.

Abstract Aim Spatial and temporal variation in fire regime parameters and forest structure were assessed. Location A 2630‐ha area of mid‐ and upper montane forest in Lassen Volcanic National Park (LVNP). Methods Two hypotheses were tested concerned with fire‐vegetation relationships in southern Cascades forests: (1) fire regime parameters (return interval, season of burn, fire size, rotation period) vary by forest dominant, elevation and slope aspect; and (2) fire exclusion since 1905 has caused forest structural and compositional changes in both mid‐ and upper montane forests. The implications of the study for national park management are also discussed. Results Fire regime parameters varied by forest compositional group and elevation in LVNP. Median composite and point fire return intervals were shorter in low elevation Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) (JP) (4–6 years, 16 years) and Jeffrey pine–white fir (Abies concolor) (JP‐WF) (5–10 years, 22 years) and longer in high elevation red fir (Abies magnifica)— western white pine (Pinus monticola) (RF‐WWP) forests (9–27 years, 70 years). Median fire return intervals were also shorter on east‐facing (6–9 years, 16.3 years) and longer on south‐ (11 years, 32.5 years) and west‐facing slopes (22–28 years, 54‐years) in all forests and in each forest composition group. Spatial patterns in fire rotation length were the same as those for fire return intervals. More growing season fires also occurred in JP (33.1%) and JP‐WF (17.5%) than in RF‐WWP (1.1%) forests. A dramatic decline in fire frequency occurred in all forests after 1905. Conclusions Changes in forest structure and composition occurred in both mid‐ and upper montane forests due to twentieth‐century fire exclusion. Forest density increased in JP and JP‐WF forests and white fir increased in JP‐WF forests and is now replacing Jeffrey pine. Forest density only increased in some RF‐WWP stands, but not others. Resource managers restoring fire to these now denser forests need to burn larger areas if fire is going to play its pre‐settlement role in montane forest dynamics.

Montane forest in the Dumoga Bone National Park, North Sulawesi

Lower montane rainforest and upper montane forest on the slopes and summit of Gunung Sinombayuga, Dumoga Bone National Park, North Sulawesi, were described by general botanical collection and quantitative sampling. The lower montane forest was dominated by the families Fagaceae, Myrtaceae, Icacinaceae and Escalloniaceae. The upper montane forest, dominated by Fagaceae and Cunoniaceae, represented 75-year-old coppice regeneration. It was less diverse than the lower montane forest and lower in stature, with a smaller basal area per hectare and a higher proportion of multi-stemmed trees. The tree flora of the montane forest is poorly known, and rich in undescribed species.

<p><strong>Foliicolous lichens and their lichenicolous fungi collected during the Smithsonian International Cryptogamic Expedition to Guyana 1996</strong></p>

A total of 233 foliicolous lichen species and 18 lichenicolous fungi are reported from Guyana as a result of the Smithsonian „International Cryptogamic Expedition to Guyana“ 1996. Three lichens and two lichenicolous fungi are new to science: Arthonia grubei sp.n., Badimia subelegans sp.n., Calopadia pauciseptata sp.n., Opegrapha matzeri sp.n. (lichenicolous on Amazonomyces sprucei), and Pyrenidium santessonii sp.n. (lichenicolous on Bacidia psychotriae). The new combination Strigula janeirensis (Bas.: Phylloporina janeirensis; syn.: Raciborskiella janeirensis) is proposed. Apart from Amazonomyces sprucei and Bacidia psychotriae, Arthonia lecythidicola (with the lichenicolous A. pseudopegraphina) and Byssolecania deplanata (with the lichenicolous Opegrapha cf. kalbii) are reported as new hosts for lichenicolous fungi. Arthonia pseudopegraphina growing on A. lecythidicola is the first known case of adelphoparasitism at generic level in foliicolous Arthonia. Arthonia flavoverrucosa, Badimia polillensis, and Byssoloma vezdanum are new records for the Neotropics, and 115 species are new for Guyana, resulting in a total of c. 280 genuine foliicolous species reported for that country, while Porina applanata and P. verruculosa are excluded from its flora. The foliicolous lichen flora of Guyana is representative for the Guianas (Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana) and has great affinities with the Amazon region, while the degree of endemism is low. A characteristic species for this area is Amazonomyces sprucei. Species composition is typical of Neotropical lowland to submontane humid forests, with a dominance of the genera Porina, Strigula, and Mazosia. The table mountain vegetation supports elements of the upper montane forest, such as Echinoplaca fusconitida and Logilvia gilva. Foliicolous lichen diversity is highest in undisturbed lowland to submontane humid forest, much lower in the table mountain vegetation and drastically decreased in semi-open secondary vegetation and the coastal savanna. Species composition in semi-open, disturbed vegetation is similar to that found in the undisturbed forest canopy. Site preferences of foliicolous lichens follow those established by studies in other Neotropical regions like Costa Rica.

Continuous change in Tanzanian moist forest tree communities with elevation

Although some studies in tropical forests suggest the existence of elevational discontinuities, zones or critical altitudes in floristic composition (briefly reviewed by Lovett 1996) two data sets from the Usambara mountains of Tanzania independently show a continuous elevational change in moist forest large tree communities (Hamilton et al. 1989, Lovett 1996). However, one data set is from the West Usambara mountains (Lovett 1996) and the other is from the East Usambara (Hamilton et al. 1989). The junction of the two data sets at around 1000–1200 m in elevation is regarded as a critical altitude (Lovett 1996), and so neither conclusively prove continuity over the entire elevational range of the forests. The two data sets were collected using the same methodology, the twenty-tree variable-area plotless technique (Hall 1991), and together constitute a transect covering nearly 2 km in elevation. They are combined here to test for continuity in change in forest large-tree communities from lowland to upper montane forest types.

Forests of the ultramafic mount Giting-Giting, Sibuyan Island, the Philippines

Mount Giting-Giting is an ultramafic mountain on Sibuyan Island, Romblon Province, Republic of the Philippines. It was studied along the Mayo's Peak Ridge which had rainforest from about 200m up to c. 1550m. The grassland and scrub vegetation from 1550m to the summit (2050m) of Giting-Giting was not explored. The mean annual rainfall at the base of the mountain was c.2100mm which included a dry season around February and March. There was a notable increase in wind speed with altitude and there was about one hurricane (called a cyclone in the Philippines) per year. Analyses showed that the soils are acid ( 4.4–5.5), and have relatively low concentrations of Olsen extractable phosphorus (0.22–2.07μg g−1), low exchangeable potassium (0.04–0.41mEq 100g−1), and relatively low (for ultramafic soils) Mg/Ca quotients (0.31–2.87) and exchangeable nickel (1.0-23.8μg g−1). Coupled plots (of 0.25 or 0.04ha) were studied at altitudes from 325m to 1540m. All trees ≥ 10cm dbh were enumerated and structural features of the trees and smaller plants were quantified. The forests were all of fairly small stature (maximum tree height 24m) but dense (up to 2180 trees ha−1 in Lower Montane Forest (LMF) and up to 880 ha−1 in Upper Montane Forest (UMF)). While different taxa could be readily recognized, specific determinations were often impossible from the mainly sterile specimens. The LMF was species rich with up to at least 111 species of tree (≥ 10cm dbh) per 0.25-ha plot. There was no family clearly dominant in the two lower plots at 325m and 385m (where the Dipterocarpaceae were probably reduced by logging). At 770m and 860m the Dipterocarpaceae accounted for 12.9% and 14.7% of the basal area respectively. There was a surprisingly high representation of the Sapotaceae (25.9% of the basal area) at 1240m. At 1540m, the Araucariaceae (Agathis sp.) dominated one plot (37.1% of the basal area) and the Myrtaceae the other (72.4%).

The effects of the Taupo Tephra eruption of c. 1718 bp on the vegetation of Mt Hauhungatahi, central North Island, New Zealand

Abstract. An altitudinal series of eleven fine resolution pollen diagrams were used to examine the role of volcanism in forest dynamics on Mt Hauhungatahi. Partial pollen diagrams from four of these sites, chosen to illustrate the major effects of the 1718 bp Taupo eruption, are presented. Following the eruption Libocedrus bidwillii expanded in all sites. Open sites created by the eruption may have facilitated an expansion already underway as a result of more variable climatic conditions since c. 3000 bp. Weinmannia racemosa invaded upper montane forest c. 650 bp. The current altitudinal sequence of forest types, with Libocedrus dominating the subalpine and Weinmannia the upper montane forests, has thus been synthesized only within the last 1800 years. This is interpreted as a consequence of individualistic species' responses to major disturbance by the eruption. The results support nonequilibrium theories of community composition.

Some Observations on the Biomass and Distribution of Cryptogamic Epiphytes in the Upper Montane Forest of the Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda

Some Observations on the Biomass and Distribution of Cryptogamic Epiphytes in the Upper Montane Forest of the Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda

Some observations on the biomass and distribution of cryptogamic epiphytes in the upper montane forest of the Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda

Measurements were made of the percentage cover, biomass and species-richness of cryptogamic epiphytes growing upon mature Phillipia phillipia stands in the ericaceous (upper montane) forest of the Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda. Macrolichens, especially Usnea spp., dominated the upper canopy, while a range of large cushion-forming hepatics (e.g. Chandonanthus, Herbertus, and Plagiochila species) dominated the lower canopy. The distribution of cryptogams was largely controlled by light intensity and phorophyte age Detailed studies of a felled Phillipia revealed twenty-nine epiphyte species (two algae, fourteen bryophytes, eleven lichens and two ferns). The forest appears to be moderately species-rich with a small number of species providing a large proportion of the cryptogam biomass. Total biomass of the epiphytes was close to 1 tonne ha−1, representing about 10% of the above-ground standing crop. Concentrations of N, P and K in the epiphytes were estimated as 10, 1, and 3 kg ha−1 respectively. The lichens and bryophytes contained about 2% and 8% respectively of the total above-ground nutrients Microclimate measurements below the forest canopy demonstrated constant high humidity with suboptimal radiation. Air temperature below the canopy averaged 7.6°C (range 4–9.5°C) during a 10-day period, and increased slightly with canopy height. Evaporation below the forest canopy showed a significant decline as altitude increased from 2300 to 3600 m.

Polish Mountain Forests: Past, Present and Future

Mountains occupy only 3% of Poland. They are the northern part of the European arc of the Carpathian and Sudety Mountains, extending about 700 km along the southern Polish border. They are of medium height (about 1500 m, maximum 2600 m a.s.l.), and have diversified climate, geology, soils, vegetation, and anthropogenic impacts. The forest vegetation of the Sudety and Carpathian Mountains form three elevational zones. Forests occur in the foothills (as high as about 600 m a.s.l.), the lower mountain forest zone (as high as about 1250 m a.s.l.) and the upper montane forest zone (as high as 1500 m a.s.l.). The original lower mountain forests consisted mainly of fir ( Abies alba Mill.) and beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.), while upper montane forests contained spruce ( Picea abies (L.) Karst.). Centuries of economic activity have changed the species composition of mountain forests. Spruce has increased considerably, and the percentage of fir and beech has decreased significantly. In the Sudety and western part of the Carpathians spruce is the most prevalent (as high as 83%), while in the eastern part of the Carpathians it does not exceed 10%. The percentage of beech in the Sudeten and western Carpathian forests is less than 20%, while it is about 40% in the eastern part of the Carpathians. Severe weather conditions, frequently poor habitats, and improper management and considerable air pollution occurring in the past 50 years, followed by infestations of primary and secondary insects and spread of parasitic fungi, have led to considerable destruction of these mountain forests. According to forecasts the area of totally destroyed and severely damaged mountain forests will increase considerably through 2010. Deterioration of forest health will proceed from west to east. Protection of forest health against deterioration requires reduction of industrial emissions, changing existing forests into genotypes that are less sensitive to air pollution and more compatible with local habitats, and recultivation of deteriorated forests.

Factors predisposing forests to canopy collapse in the southern Ruahine Range, New Zealand

The introduced brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula Kerr is recognised as the primary agent of defoliation and stand-level dieback in New Zealand broadleaved forests (except Nothofagus). The distribution and magnitude of canopy collapse of forest in 33 500 ha of the southern Ruahine Range, New Zealand was mapped from 1995 polychrome aerial photographs. Relationships between canopy collapse and forest type, altitude, aspect and slope were analysed using generalised additive models. Canopy composition was the strongest factor predicting the extent of collapse and modification: broadleaved-conifer forest is most affected, with 68–87% of the area of six such forest types replaced by scrub-low forest and tree-fernland; and surprisingly, three Nothofagus-dominated types have up to 28% of their former area now in shrubland or tussock grassland. The susceptibility to collapse of Nothofagus forest was positively correlated with distance to non- Nothofagus forest types. Subalpine scrub, which is dominated by species not favoured by possums, has increased in area by 32%, replacing former upper montane forest. Physiographic factors were much less important in multiple regressions. However, in general terms, forests on steeper slopes, in the upper montane-subalpine zone, and on warm westerly and northerly aspects were more susceptible to collapse and modification than elsewhere. It is postulated that possums were the primary agent responsible for collapse of non- Nothofagus broadleaved forest, and that red deer Cervus elaphus and goats Capra hircus were responsible for inhibiting canopy replacement by eliminating regeneration in forest understoreys. Secondary effects, such as outbreaks of defoliating insects and mechanical damage from wind also contributed to canopy collapse and were possibly triggered by possums opening up the canopy. Collapse of Nothofagus canopies possibly results from a breakdown in the recruitment phase of stand turnover, by the smothering effects of deer-induced shrubs and tussock grasses on seedlings and saplings.

A New Species of Mutisia (Compositae-Mutisieae) from Ecuador

Mutisia magnifica C. Ulloa & P. M. J0rgensen is described and illustrated. This species is distinguished by its large inflorescence heads, essentially glabrous phyllaries, ray florets with broadly elliptic, revolute ligulas, long inner lip segments, and long style. It is only known from the Cerro Uritusinga in the province of Loja, Ecuador. RESUMEN. Se describe e ilustra Mutisia magnifica C. Ulloa & P. M. J0rgensen. Las caracteristicas m~is notables son los grandes capitulos, las filarias pricticamente glabras, las ligulas elfpticas, anchas y revolutas y, los segmentos del labio interior de las flores radiadas y el estilo largos. Esta especie s61o se conoce del Cerro Uritusinga en la provincia de Loja, Ecuador. The South American genus Mutisia L. f. comprises some 60 species distributed in two well-defined areas: along the Andes from northern Colombia to southern Chile and Patagonia, and in southern Brazil and adjacent regions of Paraguay, Uruguay, and northern Argentina. The genus was revised by Cabrera (1965[1966]), and more recently Harling (1991) treated it for the Flora of Ecuador, Diaz-Piedrahita and Valez-Nauer (1993) for Colombia, and Ferreyra (1995) for Peru. Harling recognized 11 species in Ecuador and expected one Colombian species to occur in the country. During a recent collecting trip to the province of Loja, Ecuador, we collected a beautiful vine of the genus Mutisia that was climbing on the vegetation in the upper montane forest, southwest of the town of Loja. The specimens turned out to be a new species belonging to section Mutisia as treated by Cabrera (1965[1966]); it is here described, illustrated, and compared with other species. Mutisia magnifica C. Ulloa & P. M. Jorgensen, sp. nov. TYPE: Ecuador. Loja: Cerro Uritusinga, Loja-La Palma Km 18.4, 405'24S, 79013'39W, 3000 m, 28 Nov. 1994, P M. J]rgensen, C. Ulloa, S. Le6n, H. Vargas & P Lozano 1010 (holotype, MO; isotypes, LOJA, QCA, QCNE). Figure 1. A Mutisia grandiflora Humboldt & Bonpland phyllariis glabriusculis, laciniis labii interioris florum radii longis, ligula ample elliptica, lobis florum disci glabriusculis differt. Suffruticose vine climbing to ca. 10 m; branches striate, with a caducous ochraceous arachnoid indumentum. Leaves alternate, pinnate, 3-5-paired, rachis densely arachnoid to glabrescent, ending in a long trifid tendril; basal folioles stipuliform, sessile, ovate, mucronate at apex, cordate at base, 0.61.5 cm long, 0.4-1.3 cm wide; the others alternate or subopposite, petiolulate, petiolule to 2 mm long, densely arachnoid, folioles elliptic to ovate, acuteobtuse and mucronate at apex, rounded and commonly unequal at base, (1.5-)2.4-5.6 cm long, (0.8-)1.2-2.5 cm wide, finely reticulate, loosely arachnoid particularly on the main nerve to glabrescent above, paler and densely ochraceous arachnoid below. Inflorescence heads solitary, pendulous; peduncle striate, 5.8-13.5 cm long, glabrous or slightly arachnoid. Involucre narrowly cylindric, 8.5-9.6 cm long, 2.2-3 cm wide, phyllaries 25-30, in 6-7 series, entire, glabrous but minutely puberulous at tip, coriaceous, green turning black with age; outer ones broadly ovate, obtuse, mucronate, 0.5-1.5 cm long, 0.4-1.8 cm wide; median ones broadly oblong to oblong-obovate, obtuse to subacute, mucronate, 4.1-5 cm long, 1.8-2.2 cm wide; inner ones narrowly oblong, acute, 8.4-9 cm long, 0.6-1.4 cm wide. Ray florets pistillate, 8-9, ligulate; tube yellow, 7.5-8.8 cm long; ligula broadly elliptic, tridentate, recurved to revolute, bright orange-red, 5-6.4 cm long, 1.8-3 cm wide; interior lip of 2 laciniate segments, yellow, 2.5-4.3 cm long; rudimentary stamens exserted 4-6 mm; style 11.516.7 cm long. Disc florets perfect, 35-40, yellow; corolla 9.6-12.5 cm long, glabrous, but with scattered hairs with age; tube conspicuously wrinkled below the middle, not conspicuously bilabiated at apex, lobes ca. 0.5 mm long; anthers exserted 34.5 cm; style 12.1-16.5 cm long. Achenes 1.1-1.9 cm long; pappus off-white, plumose, 2.2-2.4 cm long. Distribution, habitat, and phenology. Ecuador, Loja Province, Cerro Uritusinga toward hacienda La Palma, in upper montane forest, 3000 m, flowering and fruiting in November. This species was found in a relatively undisturbed forest patch, NovoN 6: 131-133. 1996. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.136 on Thu, 19 May 2016 05:15:05 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

A cooling event during the Younger Dryas Chron in Costa Rica

Abstract A fossil pollen record from the Costa Rican Cordillera de Talamanca presents the first AMS radiocarbon-dated evidence of a temperature decrease during the Younger Dryas Chron. This cooling event is named La Chonta stadial after the bog at 2310 m altitude, located at the actual lower to upper montane forest boundary. High-resolution pollen analysis revealed that between 11,070±130 (AMS 14C age) and 10,400 yr B.P. (interpolated age) vegetation comparable to present-day subalpine forest occurred about 300–400 m lower than in the previous warmer interval, and 600 to 700 m lower than at present time. The radiocarbon dates are close to the earlier estimated ages of 11,080-10,500 yr B.P. for this interval, based on interpolation and pollen concentration rates (Hooghiemstra et al., 1992). The downslope shift of the upper forest line indicates an estimated temperature drop of 2–3°C during the La Chonta stadial. The local vegetation development is indicative of a drier climate. From 10,400 to 9800±120 yr B.P. (AMS 14C age) subalpine rain forest was replaced by upper montane forest, a transitional period to Holocene environmental conditions.

A Preliminary Report of Changing Quaternary Mammal Faunas in Subalpine New Guinea

The faunas found in the mountains of central Irian Jaya have experienced dramatic changes through the late Quaternary. Remains of two previously unknown species of large marsupial, Maokopia ronaldi and Protemnodon hopei, have been recovered from unrelated cave and fluvial deposits which today occur in dense upper montane forest. Direct dating of the finds has not as yet been possible, but stratigraphic, sedimentologic, and palynologic evidence indicates that these species lived near a climatic treeline in subalpine grassland in the late Pleistocene. At higher altitudes a rockshelter provided the second known mid-Holocene record of Thylogale christenseni and Thylogale sp. cf. brunii, apparently extinct grassland wallabies. The two largest remaining subalpine mammal species are being locally exterminated by hunting, leaving only a large murid, Mallomys gunung, which weighs less than 2.0 kg. The area thus records the disappearance of a grassland-adapted fauna. The possum Pseudocheirops cupreus dominates in modem hunting returns, although this species is totally absent from the local fossil records. It may thus be in the process of invading a vacated and disturbed niche from the upper montane forest.

Species richness and origin of the bryophyte flora of the Colombian Andes*

SUMMARY Based on data from the ECOANDES project, a phytogeographical analysis has been made of the bryophyte flora along the wet, foggy western slope (1000–4500 m) and the drier eastern slope (500–4500 m) of the Colombian Central Cordillera at the ‘Parque de los Nevados‘. Species richness increases with altitude to the upper montane forest, which holds the largest diversity. Liverworts outnumber mosses in the upper submontane and montane forests on the western slope, but elsewhere, in drier environments, their number is lower and falls to below that of mosses. Furthermore, it appears that at lower altitudes, below 3000 m, wide-ranging tropical species prevail whereas narrow-ranging tropical species (andean and endemic element) and species of temperate origin are more common at higher altitudes. Temperate species are relatively few, however, and attain less than 10% in the upper montane forest and about 20% in the paramo. They should have arrived in Colombia in the last 5 million years after the upheaval of the cordilleras.

Late Quaternary Vegetational History of the Central Highlands of Sumatra. II. Palaeopalynology and Vegetational History

Late Quaternary pollen records are described from two swamps at c. 1500 m a.s.l. in the Sumatran Highlands. At Danau di Atas (DDA) the record extends back to c. 31,000 BP. At Telago (TEL) the record extends back to c. 9000 BP. The results suggest that, in the Late Pleistocene, vegetation zones were depressed, and a gymnospermrich rainforest, now found only above 1800 m, surrounded DDA. At times upper montane forest may have been close to the site, suggesting a vegetational depression of c. 800 m. Mean annual temperature may have been c. 1.6?C to c. 5.2?C cooler than now. There is no direct evidence of formerly drier climates, although a possible reduction of water levels in the Late Pleistocene is suggested. During the Holocene, there is evidence for disturbance of rainforests, possibly by man, from a date some time after c. 8200 BP. Extensive recent forest clearance is demonstrated.

The effect of recent volcanic events and climatic changes on the vegetation of Mt Egmont (Mt Taranaki), New Zealand

Abstract Pollen diagrams are presented from two mires on the flanks of the recently active andesite stratovolcano of Mt Egmont. The diagrams span the last 3500 years, and record both climatic and volcanic induced changes to the broadleaf-podocarp forests, scrub, and shrublands which clothe the slopes of Mt Egmont and the adjacent Pouakai Range to the north. Libocedrus bidwillii and Weinmannia racemosa are common trees in the upper montane forest. Both have fluctuated in abundance over the past 3500 years, with Libocedrus being most abundant between c. 3000 and 2500 years ago, and c. 1400 and 450 years ago, and Weinmannia more common in the intervening periods. Libocedrus dominance is associated with evidence for slope instability, and it is suggested that it reflects cooler, stormier conditions. There is little evidence for climatically induced vegetation change in the lower montane forests, except that Ascarina lucida became rare after c. 1400 years ago, which many also indicate cooler conditions. The la...

Paleoenvironmental changes at the northern limit of the subantarctic Nothofagus forest, lat 37°S, Argentina

Paleoenvironmental changes dating back to before 10,000 yr B.P. at the northernmost occurrences of Nothofagus forests in Argentina at about latitude 37°S permit the reconstruction of past changes in the intensity of the winter rains, related to the southern westerlies that appear to determine the forest boundary. The paleoenvironmental interpretation is based on changes in the proportions of different Nothofagus species and changes in the ratio betwen forest and steppe taxa. The relatively most diverse and dense Nothofagus forest developed only during the last 4500 yr, prior to human impact during the last 300 yr. Before the middle Holocene, climatic conditions must have been different from the modern ones, with less overall precipitation judging from the overall lower amount of tree pollen and the reduction to primarily Nothfagus pumilio. An interval dated to older than 10,000 yr B.P. is characterized by co-occurrence of Prumnopitys andina, Nothofagus pumilio, and shrub-steppe taxa. Prumnopitys andina is known today only from scattered upper montane forest sites in Chile between 36° and 43°S lat and its ecological requirements are essentially unknown. The taxa combination, however, suggests that late-glacial climate must have been drier, and probably cooler than today. This implies that the winter rains and, consequently, the seasonal shift of the westerly circulation was reduced during the late Pleistocene and did not reach modern levels before 8500 yr B.P.

What Does the Term "Krummholz" Really Mean? Observations with Special Reference to the Alps and the Colorado Front Range

The term Krummholz is applied to the bush-like growth-forms of Pinus mugo prostrata, Alnus viridis, and some other species which are genetically determined. The term has also long been used by English-speaking botanists to refer to the climatically stunted and distorted trees in the forest-tundra ecotone. Thus, distinct ecological and plant-geographical differences are disguised which, in a more precise differentiation of the mountain plant cover, ought to be accentuated. The author tries to explain this by observation and field studies in the European high mountains and in the Rocky Mountains and suggests restricting the German term Krummholz to the genetically controlled shrub-like species; the timberline species shaped by climatic influences should be called cripple-trees. Thus, the elfin wood is nothing but a cripple facies of the upper montane forest.

Additions to the Bryoflora of Malaya

Arachniopsis major Herz., Barbella enervis (Thwait, & Mitt.) Fleisch. ex Broth., Breutelia arundinifolia (Dub.) Fleisch., Chaetomitriopsis glau- cocarpa (Reinw.) Fleisch., Fissidens subangustus Fleisch., Macrothamnium ma- crocarpum (Reinw. & Hornsch.) Fleisch., Trachypus humilis Lindb. var. humilis, and Zoopsis liukiuensis Horik. are reported for the first time from Malaya. The bryoflora of Malaya is still to a great extent unknown despite over a century and a half of investigation. As a result of continued field and herbarium work (KLU & SING), I have found several interesting distribution records. Six genera (Arachniopsis, Barbella, Breutelia, Chaetomitriopsis, Macrothamnium, Trachypus, & Zoopsis) and one species (Fissidens subangustus Fleisch.) are herein reported for the first time from Malaya. Only a single species, Arachniopsis major Herz. is endemic to Malesia; the rest are widely distributed in Asia and the Pacific. All seven species are, however, from the mon- tane forest (lower montane forest 750-1500 m, upper montane forest 1500-2100 m; Whit- more 1975, pp. 199-213) of Malaya. It appears from published data that they also occur at high elevations in other localities within Malesia and, in the case of those occurring outside of Malesia, at high latitudes, i.e. Japan, Taiwan, Sikkim etc.