Motor Recovery Of Upper Extremity Research Articles

EFFECT OF MIRROR THERAPY ON HEMIPARETIC UPPER EXTREMITY IN SUBACUTE STROKE PATIENTS

Background and Objective: Stroke is one of the most common causes for chronic disability. Only 5 to 20% of stroke survivors attain complete functional recovery of their affected upper extremity. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the effect of mirror therapy on hemiparetic upper extremity motor recovery and functions in patients with subacute stroke. Materials and Methods: A total of 30 participants were selected for the study. They were randomly assigned to Mirror Therapy Group (MTG) and Sham Mirror Therapy Group (SMTG) with fifteen participants in each group. All the participants equally took part in conventional stroke rehabilitation program 5 days a week for 4 weeks. In addition to the conventional stroke rehabilitation program, MTG participated in 30 minutes of mirror therapy and SMTG received 30 minutes of sham mirror therapy for the affected hemiparetic upper limb. The participants were measured for upper extremity motor recovery and functions by Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA-UE) and Upper Extremity Functional Index (UEFI) scales respectively. Results: Wilcoxon signed ranks test and Mann Whitney U test were used to statistically analyze the data. Spearman correlational technique was used to analyze the relationship between upper limb functions and motor recovery of hand. Based on Wilcoxon signed ranks test, the results were highly significant (p<0.05. On the basis of Mann Whitney U test, Mirror therapy group showed high significance (p<0.05) than sham mirror therapy group. The spearman’s rho value was 0.65 which indicated moderate to maximum positive correlation between the two variables and the alpha level was set at 0.01. Conclusion: This study concludes that incorporating mirror therapy in subacute stroke rehabilitation program improves the hemiparetic upper extremity motor recovery and its functions and also motor recovery of hand can directly influence the upper limb functions.

EFFECTIVENESS OF MIRROR THERAPY ON HANDFUNCTIONS IN SUBACUTE STROKE PATIENTS

Background: Mirror therapy is a relatively new therapeutic intervention that focuses on moving the unimpaired limb. In stroke patients, it involves performing movements of the unimpaired limb while watching its mirror reflection superimposed over the (unseen) impaired limb, thus creating a visual illusion of enhanced movement capability of the impaired limb. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of mirror therapy on upper extremity motor recovery, spasticity and hand related functions of patients with sub-acute stroke.Methods: The clinical trial was conducted at the department of Physiotherapy (SIMS College of Physiotherapy, Guntur), for the duration of 6 weeks. Thirty patients divided into two groups: Group A: Experimental treated with mirror therapy along with conventional therapy and Group B: Control group treated with conventional physiotherapy only. Data analyzed using SPSS, Mean, SD and T test for independent samples used.Results: Comparison of pre-treatment and post treatment scores of experimental group of Brunnstrom stages showed extremely significant; while the control groupconsidered not significant. For Modified Ashworth Scale the pretreatment and post, treatment scores of experimental and control groupswere extremely significant. In addition, Functional Independence Measure showed extremely significant for experimental group and not significant for the control group.Conclusions: Mirror therapy shared and a predictable rehabilitation program enhanced upper-extremity motor recovery and functioning in our sub-acute stroke inpatients. It is beneficial in improving the effects and outcome on upper extremity motor recovery and function.

Factors associated with upper extremity motor recovery after repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in stroke patients.

ObjectiveTo determine factors associated with motor recovery of the upper extremity after repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) treatment in stroke patients.MethodsTwenty-nine patients with subacute stroke participated in this study. rTMS was applied to the hand motor cortex for 10 minutes at a 110% resting motor threshold and 10 Hz frequency for two weeks. We evaluated the biographical, neurological, clinical, and functional variables, in addition to the motor-evoked potential (MEP) response. The Manual Function Test (MFT) was performed before, immediately after, and two weeks after, the treatment. Patients were divided into a responder and non-responder group according to their respective improvements on the MFT. Data were compared between the two groups.ResultsPatients with exclusively subcortical stroke, absence of aphasia, the presence of a MEP response, high scores on the Mini-Mental Status Examination, Motricity Index arm score, Functional Independence Measure, and Functional Ambulatory Classification; and a shorter period from stroke onset to rTMS were found to be significantly associated with a response to rTMS.ConclusionThe results of this study suggest that rTMS may have a greater effect on upper extremity motor recovery in stroke patients who have a MEP response, suffer an exclusively subcortical stroke, mild paresis, and have good functional status. Applying rTMS early would have additional positive effects in the patients with the identified characteristics.

Effect of spatial target reaching training based on visual biofeedback on the upper extremity function of hemiplegic stroke patients.

[Purpose] The aim of this study was to determine the effect of spatial target reaching training (TRT) based on visual biofeedback (VB) on the upper extremity (UE) function of hemiplegic subjects. [Subjects and Methods] Forty subjects between six and eighteen months post-stroke were enrolled in this study. They were randomly allocated to an experimental group (EG, n=20) and a control group (CG, n=20). All subjects received an hour of routine therapy for stroke three times a week for four weeks. Subjects in EG received additional spatial TRT based on VB using a 2-dimensional motion capture analysis system. Both groups were tested at pre and post-intervention. The motor function of each subject’s UE was assessed using the Fugl-Meyer (FM) test of UE and the Wolf Motor Function Test (WMFT). The reaching speed, angle and maximum reach distance were recorded using the motion capture analysis system. The experimental data were analyzed using the paired and independent t-tests. [Results] The mean change scores of the FM Test of UE and WMFT show there was significantly more improvement at post-intervention in EG than in CG. Also, the speed and angle reached showed significantly more increase in the EG compared with the CG. [Conclusions] The findings indicate that UE motor recovery of hemiplegic stroke patients can be enhanced through the use of TRT based on VB.

Predictive factors of hypertonia in the upper extremity of chronic stroke survivors.

[Purpose] Muscle tone is known to predict the motor function of the upper extremity within 12 months after onset in stroke survivors. The aim of this study was to investigate whether motor function of the upper extremity can predict the risk of hypertonia in chronic stroke survivors, and to analyze the correlation between the two variables to determine the predictive validity. [Subjects and Methods] Forty-three chronic stroke survivors were assessed using the Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS) for elbow flexor tone, the Fugl-Meyer assessment of the upper extremity (FM-UE), and the Action Research Arm Test (ARAT) for upper extremity motor recovery and function. [Results] Elbow flexor tone (MAS≥1+) increased by 0.246 compared with the baseline muscle tone even at month 12 and appeared to negatively affect the motor function of the upper extremity. The cutoff value for predicting muscle tone (MAS≥1+) was 24 for FM-UE and 15.5 for ARAT. FM-UE had the biggest impact on elbow flexor tone (MAS≥1+), and the risk of elbow flexor hypertonia (MAS≥1+) increased 0.764-fold for a cutoff value of FM-UE≤24 compared with a cutoff value of FM-UE>24. [Conclusion] The results show that the most important variable for predicting muscle tone of the elbow flexor in stroke survivors is the FM assessment of the upper extremity.

Generalizability of the Proportional Recovery Model for the Upper Extremity After an Ischemic Stroke

Background and objective. Spontaneous neurological recovery after stroke is a poorly understood process. The aim of the present article was to test the proportional recovery model for the upper extremity poststroke and to identify clinical characteristics of patients who do not fit this model. Methods. A change in the Fugl-Meyer Assessment Upper Extremity score (FMA-UE) measured within 72 hours and at 6 months poststroke served to define motor recovery. Recovery on FMA-UE was predicted using the proportional recovery model: ΔFMA-UEpredicted = 0.7·(66 − FMA-UEinitial) + 0.4. Hierarchical cluster analysis on 211 patients was used to separate nonfitters (outliers) from fitters, and differences between these groups were studied using clinical determinants measured within 72 hours poststroke. Subsequent logistic regression analysis served to predict patients who may not fit the model. Results. The majority of patients (~70%; n = 146) showed a fixed proportional upper extremity motor recovery of about 78%; 65 patients had substantially less improvement than predicted. These nonfitters had more severe neurological impairments within 72 hours poststroke (P values <.01). Logistic regression analysis revealed that absence of finger extension, presence of facial palsy, more severe lower extremity paresis, and more severe type of stroke as defined by the Bamford classification were significant predictors of not fitting the proportional recovery model. Conclusions. These results confirm in an independent sample that stroke patients with mild to moderate initial impairments show an almost fixed proportional upper extremity motor recovery. Patients who will most likely not achieve the predicted amount of recovery were identified using clinical determinants measured within 72 hours poststroke.

Mirror therapy combined with biofeedback functional electrical stimulation for motor recovery of upper extremities after stroke: a pilot randomized controlled trial.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of mirror therapy in combination with biofeedback functional electrical stimulation (BF-FES) on motor recovery of the upper extremities after stroke. Twenty-nine patients who suffered a stroke > 6 months prior participated in this study and were randomly allocated to three groups. The BF-FES + mirror therapy and FES + mirror therapy groups practiced training for 5 × 30 min sessions over a 4-week period. The control group received a conventional physical therapy program. The following clinical tools were used to assess motor recovery of the upper extremities: electrical muscle tester, electrogoniometer, dual-inclinometer, electrodynamometer, the Box and Block Test (BBT) and Jabsen Taylor Hand Function Test (JHFT), the Functional Independence Measure, the Modified Ashworth Scale, and the Stroke Specific Quality of Life (SSQOL) assessment. The BF-FES + mirror therapy group showed significant improvement in wrist extension as revealed by the Manual Muscle Test and Range of Motion (p < 0.05). The BF-FES + mirror therapy group showed significant improvement in the BBT, JTHT, and SSQOL compared with the FES + mirror therapy group and control group (p < 0.05). We found that BF-FES + mirror therapy induced motor recovery and improved quality of life. These results suggest that mirror therapy, in combination with BF-FES, is feasible and effective for motor recovery of the upper extremities after stroke.

Rasch Analysis of the Wrist and Hand Fugl-Meyer: Dimensionality and Item-Level Characteristics

Upper extremity (UE) hemiparesis remains one of the most common impairments exhibited among the expanding stroke survivor population,1 and frequently undermines performance of valued activities. Indeed, despite weeks of rehabilitation, 50% of stroke survivors retain some degree of UE weakness 2 and up to seventy percent remain unable to functionally use their paretic UEs 3 in the months after stroke. Developed in 1975, the UE section of the Fugl-Meyer (UE FM) 4 remains one of the most established and widely-used 5 assessment of UE impairment in stroke. Moreover, the UE FM is recommended for use in stroke rehabilitative trials 6 and, unlike other measures of paretic UE dysfunction 7-9 only requires a few household items to administer, making it especially conducive for clinical use. Using classical test theory techniques, the psychometric reliability 10-13 and validity 14-18 of the UE FM have been shown, and support its integrated, clinical use for assessing UE impairment after stroke. Recent investigations that employ Rasch analysis also demonstrate the strength of the UE FM items themselves. For example, it is now well established that the majority of UE FM items represent the unidimensional construct of UE motor ability 19 and that the UE FM constitutes a useful tool for classifying post-stroke UE motor impairment as mild, moderate, or severe. 5 The proliferation of UE therapies targeting stroke survivors exhibiting minimal UE impairment 20-23 has necessitated the continued development and evaluation of assessment tools providing high reliability, validity, and clinical utility. Such tools are necessary because (a) clinical time is valuable and (b) recent evidence19,24 demonstrates that the traditional understanding of UE motor recovery (i.e., proximal to distal, reflexive then synergistic then isolated) is not absolute. Further, existing measures of wrist and hand motor impairment25-27 may require specialized materials, training, and may take an excessive amount of time. To address the need for a quickly administered, rigorous, bedside measure of active UE motor ability the wrist stability, wrist mobility, and hand items of the UE FM (W/H UE FM) were administered in a standardized manner to subjects with minimal28 and moderate29 UE impairment. This 12-item subset of the UE FM was recently shown to have high intrarater reliability (ICCs = 0.95), internal consistency (Cronbach α > 0.80; ordinal α > 0.80), and concurrent validity (Action Research Arm Test correlation > 0.70) in samples of mildly impaired28 and moderately impaired29 stroke survivors. These findings provide strong evidence that the W/H UE FM may prove a viable tool for efficient, reliable, and valid assessment of UE motor ability in persons with stroke who have mild and moderate impairment. Despite these promising results, it remains unclear how individual W/H UE FM items function in the population of stroke survivors exhibiting minimal UE impairment. Because individuals experiencing mild, and even moderate, UE impairment may be at risk for early supported discharge from rehabilitative services30-32 it is critical that the psychometric properties of these items be ascertained. Our overall goal was to examine the item-level psychometrics of W/H UE FM items in a population of mildly impaired stroke survivors using Rasch analysis. To accomplish this goal, the specific aims of this study were to: (a) determine whether W/H UE FM items represent a unidimensional construct, wrist and hand motor ability and (b) determine the Rasch modeled item-structure of the W/H UE FM. Rasch analysis provides a measurement model for evaluation of categorical data based on the tenet that a total score results from the interaction of (1) person ability and (2) item difficulty.33 The first step in a Rasch analysis is to construct a scalogram. The scalogram is an ordered table of data resulting from measurement of any single attribute (e.g. wrist and hand motor ability). People are ordered from least able to most able based on their ability. Thus, person ability is given by the number of items answered correctly or points earned out of the total possible. Similarly, test items are ordered from least difficult to most difficult, with item difficulty given as the number of items endorsed out of the total possible. These data are transformed from the ordinal (i.e., categorical) level of measurement to an interval scale by means of a log-odds transformation. The resulting logits enable direct, linear, comparison of person abilities and item difficulties, a primary advantage of the Rasch model. Applied to wrist and hand motor ability, as is the case here, the probability of a person's “success for any given item depends on the difference between the ability of the person and the difficulty of the item.”33 Rasch analysis also enables evaluation of individual items using fit statistics, which reflect the alignment of each item to the construct being measured.34 Researchers use these statistics to refine new and existing instruments, examine reliability and validity, and optimize clinical utility for specific populations.

Minimizing errors in acute traumatic spinal cord injury trials by acknowledging the heterogeneity of spinal cord anatomy and injury severity: an observational Canadian cohort analysis.

Clinical trials of therapies for acute traumatic spinal cord injury (tSCI) have failed to convincingly demonstrate efficacy in improving neurologic function. Failing to acknowledge the heterogeneity of these injuries and under-appreciating the impact of the most important baseline prognostic variables likely contributes to this translational failure. Our hypothesis was that neurological level and severity of initial injury (measured by the American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale [AIS]) act jointly and are the major determinants of motor recovery. Our objective was to quantify the influence of these variables when considered together on early motor score recovery following acute tSCI. Eight hundred thirty-six participants from the Rick Hansen Spinal Cord Injury Registry were analyzed for motor score improvement from baseline to follow-up. In AIS A, B, and C patients, cervical and thoracic injuries displayed significantly different motor score recovery. AIS A patients with thoracic (T2-T10) and thoracolumbar (T11-L2) injuries had significantly different motor improvement. High (C1-C4) and low (C5-T1) cervical injuries demonstrated differences in upper extremity motor recovery in AIS B, C, and D. A hypothetical clinical trial example demonstrated the benefits of stratifying on neurological level and severity of injury. Clinically meaningful motor score recovery is predictably related to the neurological level of injury and the severity of the baseline neurological impairment. Stratifying clinical trial cohorts using a joint distribution of these two variables will enhance a study's chance of identifying a true treatment effect and minimize the risk of misattributed treatment effects. Clinical studies should stratify participants based on these factors and record the number of participants and their mean baseline motor scores for each category of this joint distribution as part of the reporting of participant characteristics. Improved clinical trial design is a high priority as new therapies and interventions for tSCI emerge.

Trajectory of Motor Performance Over Twelve Months in Nigerian Stroke Survivors

Objective: Submissions on recovery of post-stroke motor performance vary, especially in relation to increasing time after stroke. This study examined the trajectory of motor performance over the first 12 months after stroke.Methods: Consecutive first-incidence stroke survivors (N= 83) were recruited within 1 month of onset from a tertiary health institution in Nigeria. Simplified Fugl Meyer scale (S-FM) was used to assess motor performance at monthly intervals. Changes in overall motor performance, and differences between the affected upper and lower extremities, were examined using Friedman's ANOVA and pairedt-tests, respectively.Results: Significant improvement in motor performance was observed across 12 months (p&lt; .001), with the proportion of stroke survivors with severe impairment at onset (53.3%) decreasing to 20% by 12 months. Lower extremity motor performance scores were significantly higher than for the upper extremity from 1 to 12 months (p&lt;.01 at 3, 4, 5, 6 and 12 months; andp&lt; .05 at the remaining months).Conclusions: The potential for long-term improvement in motor performance after stroke was observed, suggesting that this can be harnessed by long-term rehabilitation efforts. The comparatively poorer outcome in the upper extremity indicates the need for extra rehabilitation strategies to enhance upper-extremity motor recovery in the first year of stroke.

High Prevalence of Early Language Delay Exists Among Toddlers With Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy

AimAn association of language impairment with neonatal brachial plexus palsy has not been reported in the literature. The current treatment paradigm for neonatal brachial plexus palsy focuses on upper extremity motor recovery with little formal assessment of other aspects of development, such as language. We performed a cross-sectional pilot study to investigate early language delay prevalence in toddlers with neonatal brachial plexus palsy and potential neonatal brachial plexus palsy–related factors involved. MethodTwenty toddlers with neonatal brachial plexus palsy were consecutively recruited (12 males and eight females; mean age, 30 months). Preschool Language Scale Score (4th edition), demographics, and socioeconomic status were collected. Neonatal brachial plexus palsy–related factors such as palsy side, treatment type, Narakas grade, muscle Medical Research Council score, and Raimondi hand score were reported. Student t test, chi-square test, or Fisher exact test were applied. Statistical significance level was established at P < 0.05. ResultsOf study participants, 30% had language delay, whereas the prevalence of language delay in the population with normal development in this age range was approximately 5-15%. InterpretationWe observed high language delay prevalence among toddlers with neonatal brachial plexus palsy. Although our subject sample is small, our findings warrant further study of this phenomenon. Early identification and timely intervention based on type of language impairment may be critical for improving communication outcome in this population.

Does Task-Oriented Practice Improve Upper Extremity Motor Recovery after Stroke? A Systematic Review

Background. Stroke commonly affects upper extremity motor abilities, yet there has been very limited success in developing effective rehabilitation interventions to remediate motor impairments, particularly for the upper extremity. Objective. To determine if task-oriented practice administered soon after stroke is more effective than usual care in improving poststroke upper extremity motor recovery and to explore the optimal amount of practice. Methods. A systematic review of the literature was performed from 1950 to November 2012, to identify randomized controlled trials of task-oriented practice compared to usual care, or to different amounts of task-oriented practice to improve motor impairment and activity. Studies were excluded if specific types of interventions were used as comparators or if they were of poor methodological quality. Results. Six studies met the review criteria. Three of the six studies demonstrated a statistically significant effect of task-oriented practice. Study results could not be pooled because of a lack of homogeneity in populations and intervention. Conclusions. The results demonstrate that an increase in the amount of task-oriented practice after stroke may result in less upper extremity impairment; further research on both effect and required dosage is needed as results are inconsistent.

Abstract T P125: The Effects of Robot-assisted Training With Electrical Stimulation on Health-related Conditions in Patients With Chronic Stroke: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

Background: Robot-assisted therapy (RT) is an effective approach to promote upper extremity motor recovery in patients with stroke. Previous research showed that severely affected patients were less responsive to RT than those with mild to moderate motor severity. It’s necessary to develop a combined therapy which can expand the optimal treatment effect of RT to all kinds of stroke patients. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (ES) could be used to supplement RT to improve movement awareness and output. Purpose: To compare the effects of RT with ES, dose-matched RT with placebo ES, and conventional rehabilitation (CR) on motor and daily function, and quality of life in patients with chronic stroke. Methods: This is a single-blind randomized controlled trial. There were 30 patients with chronic stroke who were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: (1) RT with neuromuscular ES (RT+ES); (2) RT with placebo ES (no stimulations into the electrodes); (3) CR. All participants engaged in 90 to 105 minutes of training in each session, 5 times a week for 4 weeks. Outcome measures were Action Research Arm Test (ARAT) for motor function, accelerometer data of 3-day active level in affected hand for daily function, and Stroke Impact Scale (SIS) for quality of life. Analysis of covariance was used to compare the treatment effects among groups. Results: Significant between-group differences favoring the RT+ES group were shown on the grip subtest of ARAT (η2=.614, p &lt;.05,) and the activity of accelerometer (η2=.260, p &lt;.05) while a non-significant trend but large effect favoring RT+ES was observed on total score of ARAT (η2=.192, p=.411). A group effect favoring CR group on activity of daily living subscale of SIS was revealed (η2=.286, p &lt;.05). There were no statistically significant differences on other outcome measures. Conclusions: Providing four weeks of RT+ES during chronic stroke appears to produce further improvements on hand grip and active level of affected hand in daily living than providing CR alone. Adding ES to RT could provide additional effect, given that active level of affected hand did not improved in the placebo group. Future study may incorporate more task-oriented practice into RT+ES treatment program to enhance treatment effects on life quality.

After vs. priming effects of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation on upper extremity motor recovery in patients with subacute stroke

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the motor cortex seems to be effective in improving motor performance in patients with chronic stroke, while some recent findings have reported conflicting results for the subacute phase. We aimed to verify whether upper extremity motor rehabilitation could be enhanced by treatment with tDCS administered before a rehabilitative session. Hand dexterity and force in 16 individuals with subacute stroke were assessed before (T0) and after anodal stimulation (T1) and after a successive session of motor rehabilitation (T2) in a double-blind, randomized, sham-controlled, crossover trial. To confirm the value of the device as a specific effector, behavioral tests were also administered. Anodal and sham stimulation plus rehabilitation significantly improved manual dexterity (repeated-measure Anova: A-tDCS: p = 0.005; S-tDCS: p = 0.042). Post hoc analysis revealed a significant stimulation effect only for A-tDCS (p = 0.013 between T0 and T1) and not for S-tDCS, whereas the rehabilitation effect (between T1 and T2) was not significant in either group. Hand force and behavioral features were unchanged. Anodal brain stimulation improves hand dexterity but does not increase the effectiveness of the rehabilitation directly. These results suggest the presence of aftereffects, not priming effects, of A-tDCS superimposed onto motor learning phenomena.

Comparison of upper extremity motor recovery of stroke patients with actual physical activity in their daily lives measured with accelerometers.

[Purpose] This study compared the upper extremity recovery of stroke patients with the amount of their upper extremity use in real life as measured by accelerometers. [Subjects] Forty inpatients who had had a stroke were recruited. [Methods] The subjects were divided into two groups by the Fugl-Meyer Assessment of Motor Function (FMA) score, a moderately recovered group and a well recovered group. The amount of upper extremity physical activity and its ratio in daily time periods were analyzed for the affected and unaffected sides. [Results] The well recovered group showed significantly higher affected arm use and use ratio than the moderately recovered group in all time periods. [Conclusion] The upper extremity recovery level of the affected side is similar to the physical activity level according to the amount of upper extremity physical activity in actual life measured with an accelerometer. Overuse of the normal side regardless of the recovery level of upper extremity proves the International Classification of Functioning (ICF) concept of differentiating between capacity and performance, and rehabilitation treatments should focus on improving performance.

Comparison of the effectiveness of active and passive neuromuscular electrical stimulation of hemiplegic upper extremities

To compare the efficacy of electromyography (EMG)-triggered (active) neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) and passive NMES in enhancing the upper extremity (UE) motor and functional recovery of subacute and chronic stage stroke patients. Thirty-one hemiplegic patients were randomly assigned to active NMES (n=11), passive NMES (n=10), and control (sham stimulation) (n=10) groups. Each treatment regimen was applied five times per week for 45 min for 3 weeks. All of the patients performed the same neurophysiologic exercise program for 45 min five times per week for 3 weeks. Patients were assessed by the UE component of the Fugl-Meyer Motor Assessment (UE-FMA), the self-care component of the Functional Independence Measure (self-care FIM), the Motor Activity Log (MAL), goniometric measurements of active wrist and metacarpophalangeal joint extension, surface EMG potentials, grip strength, and the modified Ashworth scale in a blinded manner. Data were obtained before and at the end of the treatment. Participants were similar in all clinical and demographic features (P>0.05). All groups were comparable with respect to UE-FMA, MAL, self-care FIM, wrist and finger flexor spasticity, active range of motion (ROM), grip strength, and surface EMG potentials before treatment (P>0.05). The active ROM, grip strength, FMA, FIM, surface EMG potentials, and MAL: amount of use were significantly improved in the EMG-triggered NMES group compared with the controls (P<0.05). The active wrist extension ROM and FMA scores were significantly improved in the passive NMES group compared with the controls (P<0.05). There were no statistically significant differences between active and passive NMES groups in any of the parameters evaluated at the end of the treatment (P>0.05). Both active and passive NMES as adjuvant therapy in the neurophysiologic exercise program effectively enhanced the UE motor and functional recovery of stroke survivors.

Stroke-related motor outcome measures: Do they quantify the neurophysiological aspects of upper extremity recovery?

Various stroke rehabilitation outcome measures are used in clinical and research practice. Severe upper extremity paresis serves as a challenge for the selection of an appropriate outcome measure. No single measure is universally acceptable and sufficient to record the minute clinically important changes. The objectives of the present review were to explore the stroke-specific upper extremity motor outcome measures and to better understand those measures' ability to quantify upper extremity motor recovery. Seven outcome measures were selected for this review. The criteria used to select outcome measures for this review included performance-based tools that assessed the upper extremity's voluntary motor control and outcome measures which had been used for the past 10 years. A critical review that referred to motor recovery stages and volitional control was performed. The upper extremity components of each measure were compared with the neurophysiological aspects of recovery (Brunnstrom Recovery Stages) and analyzed for their clinical relevance. The concepts of minimal detectable change and minimal clinically important difference were also considered while examining the outcome measures. The findings of this review reveal that there were very few measures available to precisely assess the upper extremity motor components and volitional control. Most of the measures are functional and performance-based. Only Fugl-Meyer Assessment was found to explore the individual joint motor control as per the sequential recovery stages. Further, there is a need to develop stroke-specific upper extremity outcome measures. Scoring criteria of the acceptable measures may be modified to discern precise and progressive, but clinically significant motor changes.

Error Augmentation Enhancing Arm Recovery in Individuals With Chronic Stroke

Background. Neurorehabilitation studies suggest that manipulation of error signals during practice can stimulate improvement in coordination after stroke. Objective. To test visual display and robotic technology that delivers augmented error signals during training, in participants with stroke. Methods. A total of 26 participants with chronic hemiparesis were trained with haptic (via robot-rendered forces) and graphic (via a virtual environment) distortions to amplify upper-extremity (UE) tracking error. In a randomized crossover design, the intervention was compared with an equivalent amount of practice without error augmentation (EA). Interventions involved three 45-minute sessions per week for 2 weeks, then 1 week of no treatment, and then 2 additional weeks of the alternate treatment. A therapist provided a visual cursor using a tracking device, and participants were instructed to match it with their hand. Haptic and visual EA was used with blinding of participant, therapist, technician-operator, and evaluator. Clinical measures of impairment were obtained at the beginning and end of each 2-week treatment phase as well as at 1 week and at 45 days after the last treatment. Results. Outcomes showed a small, but significant benefit to EA training over simple repetitive practice, with a mean 2-week improvement in Fugl-Meyer UE motor score of 2.08 and Wolf Motor Function Test of timed tasks of 1.48 s. Conclusions. This interactive technology may improve UE motor recovery of stroke-related hemiparesis.

Abstract TMP31: Peripheral Nerve Stimulation Paired with Constraint-Induced Therapy to Enhance Post-Stroke Upper Extremity Motor Performance

Research has shown that peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) can enhance motor learning following cortical lesions. Studies have also shown that intensive upper extremity motor training can significantly enhance post-stroke motor performance. Constraint-induced therapy (CIT) is a form of intensive training that restricts use of the non-paretic upper extremity during repetitive, task-oriented motor training of the paretic extremity. Extensive evidence has validated the effectiveness of CIT for enhancing post-stroke upper extremity motor recovery. No studies have evaluated how PNS may modulate the effects of CIT. Therefore, we conducted a pilot study of PNS paired with CIT and hypothesized that in subjects with stroke, pairing CIT with active PNS would lead to significantly more improved motor function in the paretic upper extremity than CIT paired with sham PNS. Outcome measures included the Fugl-Meyer Assessment Scale (FMA; primary outcome measure), the Wolf Motor Function Test (WMFT), and the Action Research Arm Test (ARAT). Nineteen chronic stroke subjects with mild to moderate upper extremity motor deficit received 2 hours of either active (n=10) or sham (n=9) PNS preceding 4 hours of CIT for 10 consecutive weekdays. Changes in FMA, WMFT, and ARAT were analyzed using factorial ANOVA. Results showed significant (p&lt;0.05) change in all measures at completion evaluation compared with baseline (FMA (p=0.005); WMFT (p=0.030); ARAT (p=0.020)) as well as 1-month follow-up compared with baseline (FMA (p=0.048); WMFT (p=0.045); ARAT (p=0.047)). These results highlight the enormous potential for PNS paired with CIT to enhance post-stroke upper extremity motor recovery more effectively than CIT alone.

Rehabilitation with Functional Electrical Stimulation in Stroke Patients

In recent years, our understanding of motor learning, neuroplasticity and functional recovery after the occurrence of brain lesion has grown significantly. New findings in basic neuroscience have provided an impetus for research in motor rehabilitation. Several prospective studies have shown that repeated motor practice and motor activity in a real world environment have a favorable effect on motor recovery in stroke patients. Electrical stimulation can be applied in a variety of ways to the hemiparetic upper extremity following a stroke. In particular, electromyography (EMG)- triggered electrical muscle stimulation improves the motor function of the hemiparetic arm and hand. Triggered electrical stimulation is reported to be more effective than non-triggered electrical stimulation in facilitating upper extremity motor recovery after stroke. EMG-controlled functional electrical stimulation (FES) induces greater muscle contraction by electrical stimulation that is in proportion to voluntary integrated EMG signals. EMG-controlled FES and motor point block for antagonist muscles have been applied as a new hybrid FES therapy in an outpatient rehabilitation clinic for patients with stroke with good result. Daily EMG-controlled FES home-program therapy with novel equipment has been shown to effectively improve wrist, finger extension, and shoulder flexion. Combined modulation of voluntary movement, proprioceptive sensory feedback, and electrical stimulation might play an important role in improving impaired sensory-motor integration by EMG-controlled FES therapy. A multi-channel near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) studies in which the hemoglobin levels in the brain were non-invasively and dynamically measured during functional activity found that the cerebral blood flow in the injured sensory-motor cortex area is greater during a EMG-controlled FES session than during simple active movement or simple electrical stimulation. Nevertheless, evidence-based strategies for FES rehabilitation are more and more available, particularly for patients suffering from hemiparesis.