Upland Catchments Research Articles

Integrating parsimonious models of hydrological connectivity and soil biogeochemistry to simulate stream DOC dynamics

AbstractTo improve understanding and prediction of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) sources and fluxes in northern peat‐dominated catchments, we present the development and application of a parsimonious tracer‐aided rainfall‐runoff model coupled with a biogeochemistry subroutine able to concurrently simulate streamflow and DOC dynamics. The modeling approach which included quantitative assessment of associated uncertainties was conditioned by geochemical tracers which discriminate dominant water sources. Integration of DOC was predicated on statistical time series models which identified air temperature and streamflow as the key proxies that capture DOC supply and transport processes in two upland catchments in Scotland, UK. Conceptualizing the nonlinear partitioning of quick near‐surface and slower groundwater runoff sources in combination with a DOC mass balance resulted in a coupled, low‐parameter mechanistic model. Model tests showed mostly sensitive parameters and reasonable simulation results with seasonally controlled DOC supply and event‐based DOC transport. Transport is facilitated even for smaller events by overland flow from saturated histosols connected to the stream network. However, during prolonged dry periods, near‐surface runoff “switches off” and stream DOC is dominated by low concentration groundwaters. Furthermore, the model was able to explain subtle differences in DOC dynamics between the two catchments mainly reflecting the distribution of saturated soils and available storage. We conclude that tracers and statistical time series models can successfully guide the development of parsimonious yet structurally consistent water quality models. Parsimonious models provide tools for estimating DOC dynamics and loads with reduced uncertainty and potentially greater transferability.

Geomorphological records of extreme floods and their relationship to decadal-scale climate change

Extreme rainfall and flood events in steep upland catchments leave geomorphological traces of their occurrence in the form of boulder berms, debris cones, and alluvial fans. Constraining the age of these features is critical to understanding (i) landscape evolution in response to past, present, and future climate changes; and (ii) the magnitude–frequency of extreme, ungauged floods in small upland catchments. This research focuses on the Cambrian Mountains of Wales, UK, where lichenometric dating of geomorphological features and palaeohydrological reconstructions is combined with climatological data and documentary flood records. Our new data from Wales highlight a distinct flood-rich period between 1900 and 1960, similar to many other UK lichen-dated records. However, this study sheds new light on the underlying climatic controls on upland flooding in small catchments. Although floods can occur in any season, their timing is best explained by the Summer North Atlantic Oscillation (SNAO) and shifts between negative (wetter than average conditions with regular cyclonic flow and flooding) and positive phases (drier than average conditions with less frequent cyclonic flow and flooding), which vary from individual summers to decadal and multidecadal periods. Recent wet summer weather, flooding, and boulder-berm deposition in the UK (2007–2012) are related to a pronounced negative phase shift of the SNAO. There is also increasing evidence that recent summer weather extremes in the mid-latitudes may be related to Arctic amplification and rapid sea ice loss. If this is the case, continuing and future climate change is likely to mean that (i) unusual weather patterns become more frequent; and (ii) upland UK catchments will experience heightened flood risk and significant geomorphological changes.

Influence of landscape position and transient water table on soil development and carbon distribution in a steep, headwater catchment

Upland headwater catchments, such as those in the Appalachian Mountain region, are typified by coarse textured soils, flashy hydrologic response, and low baseflow of streams, suggesting well drained soils and minimal groundwater storage. Model formulations of soil genesis, nutrient cycling, critical loads and rainfall/runoff response are typically based on vertical percolation, development of soil horizons parallel to the land surface, mineral weathering inputs limited to the rooting zone and drainage from lumped catchment reservoirs (e.g., the subsoil) as the dominant source of stream flow. However, detailed study of the hydrologic reference catchment at Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, NH, USA shows striking spatial patterns of soil development that reflect the influence of transient water tables within the solum in nearly all landscape positions. Shallow bedrock and variably low hydraulic conductivity in the subsoil promote lateral flow and development of soil horizons along hillslope flowpaths rather than in vertical profiles. We distinguished several morphologic units based on the presence of diagnostic horizons indicative of differing patterns of podzolization and carbon storage. The distribution of soils appears to be highly dependent on local drainability and frequency and duration of transient saturation within the solum. As such, monitoring of hydropedologic groups and transient water table fluctuations may prove to be a sentinel for the effects of climate change on spatial distribution of soils and retention/release of solutes from upland catchments.

Restoration of Prairie Hydrology at the Watershed Scale: Two Decades of Progress at Neal Smith National Wildlife Refuge, Iowa

Tallgrass prairie once occupied 67.6 million hectares in the North American Midwest but less than 0.1% remains today. Consisting of more than 2200 ha, Neal Smith National Wildlife Refuge (NSNWR) was established by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in the 5217 ha Walnut Creek watershed in Jasper County, Iowa. Large tracts of land are being converted from row crop agriculture to native prairie and savanna with the goal to restore the landscape to a semblance of the condition that existed prior to Euro-American settlement. Understanding hydrologic processes at the watershed scale has been a focus of research at NSNWR for nearly two decades and the purpose of this paper is to integrate research results from monitoring projects to assess the progress made towards restoring five key hydrologic components: the water balance, stream network, streamflow hydrograph, groundwater levels and water quality. Restoration of hydrology is severely challenged by the history of hydrologic changes that occurred in the basin during a century of intensive agricultural activity. We document measurable progress in restoring key hydrologic processes in some areas, particularly in upland catchments compared to the larger watershed scale and discuss the timeframe needed to observe changes at short- and long-term scales.

An investigation of the effect of transient climate change on snowmelt, flood frequency and timing in northern Britain

ABSTRACTClimate change is almost certain to affect snow and ice processes. Even at lower latitudes, changes in snow cover at high altitudes can significantly affect catchment hydrology. This article uses data from a transient Regional Climate Model projection (HadRM3Q0) for 1950–2099 (A1B emissions) to drive hydrological models for three nested catchments on the river Dee in north‐east Scotland, to assess potential changes in flood frequency and timing using annual maxima and moving‐window analyses. Some results are also shown for an upland catchment in northern England. Modelling is performed both with and without a snow module, to demonstrate the effects of snowfall/melt and how these change through time and vary between catchments. Modelled changes in flood magnitude and timing are nonlinear, with most changes for daily mean flows not significant. For longer duration (30‐day) flows with snow there are significant decreases in peak magnitude, particularly for the smaller higher altitude Dee catchments, with peaks occurring months earlier in future (changes without snow are generally not significant). There is a general convergence in results with and without snow later in the period, as snow processes become less important, but convergence occurs at different times for different catchments and occurs differently for daily and 30‐day peak flows due to the differential effects of snow at different durations. This not only highlights the importance of including snow processes for such catchments, particularly for longer duration flows, but also highlights the complexity of interactions: Physical catchment properties, the balance between precipitation occurrence and temperature, and how this balance alters as the climate changes will each be critical in determining the impact on the magnitude and timing of peak flows, making it hard to generalize results.

Evidence to support the significance of rapid lateral flow contributions from a subsurface palaeochannel to a stream during event flows

Debate over water movement processes and pathway contributions through the landscape into streams remains contested, as often paradox evidence between published studies demonstrate major differences in reported component contributions. The objectives of this paper are to add further evidence to this ongoing debate through using multidisciplinary field-based measurement techniques and a focus around the impact of ancient palaeochannels for directing significant contributions of soil water and solutes into streams in relatively short and reactive time frames during stream flow events. The project involved afield-based study in the Livingstone Creek subcatchment located within the Murrumbidgee valley of inland southern New South Wales, where dryland salinity problems are of major concern. The project investigates the processes influencing salt movement from the landscape to the stream in a upland catchment that also has large areas of river flats and valleys. The major finding of the study was that during rainfall events rapid infiltration of recharge occurred in the unsaturated zones across the alluvial landform.

QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF SEDIMENT REDISTRIBUTION IN THE SICHUAN HILLY BASIN AND THE CENTRAL RUSSIAN UPLAND DURING THE PAST 60 YEARS

Agricultural lands around the globe have been seriously affected by soil erosion and resultant on- and off-site eco-environmental problems. Quantitative assessment of sediment redistribution allows for explicit understanding the effects of natural and anthropogenic agents on catchment soil erosion and sediment delivery. To this end, sediment redistribution at field and catchment scales in two agricultural regions of the Sichuan Hilly Basin in southwestern China and the Central Russian Upland was comprehensively assessed using multiple approaches including 137Cs tracing, soil morphology comparison, empirical-mathematic modeling, sediment budgeting, discharge and sediment monitoring, and sediment dating. Field measurements were undertaken in the zero-order small catchments (with drainage area less than 0,25 km2), and soil erosion rates were found to be 6-7 t ha-1-yr-1. Long-term repeated measurements indicated that both precipitation changes and conservation practices had contributed to the alleviation of soil erosion on hillslopes. However, eroded sediment was transferred from hillslopes to streams through different pathways for both regions. High slope-channel connectivity and substantial proportions of sediment delivery were observed in the Sichuan Hilly Basin. Changes of riverine suspended sediment yield were indicative of soil erosion and sediment delivery on upland catchments. Large quantity of sediment was redeposited on first-order dry-valley bottoms and only 4-12% of the gross sediment load was delivered into adjacent river channels in the Central Russian Upland.

Monitoring of fluvial transport in small upland catchments – methods and preliminary results

W 2011 roku uruchomiono na Wyżnie Lubelskiej i Roztoczu monitoring hydro-meteorologiczny i geomorfologiczny w 7 zlewniach niskiej rangi hydrologicznej (ryc. 1), w ramach projektu NCN, pt.: „Predykcja gwałtownych ulew i modelowanie matematyczne ich skutków środowiskowych i społeczno-ekonomicznych” (nr NN/306571640). Pomiary transportu fluwialnego wykonuje się w 12 reprezentatywnych przekrojach poprzecznych rzek i potoków okresowych (ryc. 1). W pracy przedstawiono wstępne wyniki otrzymane dla okresu maj–październik 2011 roku dla dwóch zlewni (Świerszcza i Kryniczanki) położonych na Roztoczu. W analizowanym dość ciepłym i suchym okresie zarejestrowano 87 dni z opadem > 0,1 mm, a maksymalny opad dobowy nie przekroczył 40 mm (ryc. 2). Odpływ całkowity ze zlewni Świerszcza wahał się od 6,4 mm do 104,5 mm, co stanowiło 1,8 % całkowitej sumy opadów. Średni odpływ ze zlewni Kryniczanki osiągnął 10,4 mm (ok. 2,2% całkowitej sumy opadów). Skrajne wielkości dobowe przepływu w Świerszczu zmieniały się od 0,135 m3·s-1 do 0,498 m3·s-1 (ryc. 3). Najwyższe przepływy miesięczne przypadały na sierpień (0,235 m3·s-1), najniższe na wrzesień (0,153 m3·s-1). W Kryniczance skrajne wielkości dobowe przepływu zmieniały się od 0,013 do 1,52 m3·s-1, natomiast najwyższe przepływy zanotowano w lipcu, a najniższe w czerwcu i październiku (ryc. 3). Średnie miesięczne wielkości mineralizacji całkowitej były mało zmienne, zarówno dla Kryniczanki (231–287 mg∙dm-3), jak i Świerszcza (137–177 mg∙dm-3). Najmniej roztworów odprowadzanych było w czerwcu (Kryniczanka – 38,7 t, Świerszcz – 70,1 t), najwięcej w lipcu (Kryniczanka – 236 t) lub październiku (Świerszcz – 99 t), a całkowity odpływ materiału ze zlewni osiągnął 591 t (Kryniczanka) i 470 t (Świerszcz). Udział materiału rozpuszczonego w całkowitym transporcie rzeczym był bardzo wysoki (do 99.7%), a materiału dennego niewielki (< 1%). Wskaźniki denudacji jednostkowej w okresie maj–październik 2011 roku wahały się od 0,6 do 3,5 t·km-2 dla zlewni Kryniczanki oraz od 1,7 do 2,2 t·km-2 dla zlewni Świerszcza. Średnie wskaźniki denudacji chemicznej osiągnęły 1,5 t·km-2 dla Kryniczanki i 0,19 t·km-2 dla Świerszcza. Średnie wskaźniki denudacji mechanicznej dochodziły do 0,019 t·km-2 dla Kryniczanki i 0,072 t·km-2 dla Świerszcza. Otrzymane wskaźniki denudacji nie odbiegają od średnich z wielolecia. Zróżnicowanie transportu fluwialnego w analizowanych zlewniach było uzależnione od wielkości i rozkładu odpływu oraz pokrycia terenu. Otrzymane zaś wskaźniki denudacji są niższe od przeciętnych dla Wyżyn Polskich i porównywalnie z obszarami Niżu Środkowoeuropejskiego. Wpływa na to stosunkowo mała rozpuszczalność większości skał w podłożu, znaczny udział lasów i łąk w dnach dolin oraz małe nasilenie antropopresji (duży udział obszarów chronionych).

UV-visible absorbance spectroscopy as a proxy for peatland dissolved organic carbon (DOC) quantity and quality: considerations on wavelength and absorbance degradation.

Absorbance in the UV or visible spectrum (UV-vis) is commonly used as a proxy for DOC concentrations in waters draining upland catchments. To determine the appropriateness of different UV-vis measurements we used surface and pore water samples from two Welsh peatlands in four different experiments: (i) an assessment of single wavelength proxies (1 nm increments between 230-800 nm) for DOC concentration demonstrated that 254 nm was more accurate than 400 nm. The highest R(2) values between absorbance and DOC concentration were generated using 263 nm for one sample set (R(2) = 0.91), and 230 nm for the other three sample sets (respective R(2) values of 0.86, 0.81, and 0.93). (ii) A comparison of different DOC concentration proxies, including single wavelength proxies, a two wavelength model, a proxy using phenolic concentration, and a proxy using the area under a UV spectrum at 250-350 nm. It was found that both a single wavelength proxy (≤263 nm) and a two wavelength model performed well for both pore water and surface water. (iii) An evaluation of the E2 : E3, E2 : E4, E4 : E6 ratios, and SUVA (absorbance at 254 nm normalised to DOC concentration) as indicators of DOC quality showed that the E4 : E6 ratio was subject to extensive variation over time, and was highly correlated between surface water and pore water, suggesting that it is a useful metric to determine temporal changes in DOC quality. (iv) A repeated weekly analysis over twelve weeks showed no consistent change in UV-vis absorbance, and therefore an inferred lack of degradation of total DOC in samples that were filtered and stored in the dark at 4 °C.

Shallow landslide initiation susceptibility mapping by GIS-based weights-of-evidence analysis of multi-class spatial data-sets: a case study from the natural sloping terrain of Western Ghats, India

The study aims to prepare a landslide susceptibility zonation (LSZ) map and quantitative validation of the result at a scale of 1:50,000 for the upland catchment of river Meenachil, Kottayam district, Kerala, India by recognizing and mapping the palaeoslide locations and the associated terrain attributes. A bivariate statistical method, known as the weights of evidence modeling, which offers a flexible way of testing the importance of input factors used for landslide susceptibility assessment, were used for the analysis. Fourteen terrain parameters namely, geomorphology, drainage density, soil type, soil thickness, land use, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), slope, aspect, relative relief, slope length, profile curvature, plan curvature, flowpath length and topographic wetness index were generated and its weights were determined. The conditional independence of the evidential themes was assessed by ‘Omnibus test’ and those themes which found to be conditionally independent were integrated to produce the final LSZ map. The results shows that areas having slope less than 16° is classified as stable areas since the active geomorphic processes are absent there, areas covered by side-slope plateau and denudational hills constitutes the very high and high susceptible region and is contributed by the slope between 16° and 45°, facing southwest, west and northwest directions, with extended influence from relative relief, slope length, flowpath length and compound topographic index. The reliability and accuracy of the LSZ map was assessed by the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis and the model shows a prediction accuracy of 89.2% (area under the curve = 0.892). In order to enhance the utility of the results of the present study, a panchayath-wise (the lowest administrative body) susceptibility map was produced and it shows that, among these panchayaths, highly susceptible areas are found in Munnilavu, Talanad, Tikoy and Poonjar Thekkekara. Suggestions are also drawn to optimize the hazard assessment for the region having high landslide susceptibility.

Application of congener based multi-matrix profiling techniques to identify potential PCDD/F sources in environmental samples from the Burrishoole Catchment in the West of Ireland

Homologue and congener profiles of PCDD/Fs in eels, passive sampler and sediment extracts from the Burrishoole, a rural upland catchment on the western Irish seaboard were compared with potential PCDD sources. ΣPCDD/F levels in eels ranged from 2.9 to 25.9 pg g−1 wet weight, which are elevated compared to other Irish locations. The OCDD congener dominated the pattern of ΣPCDD/Fs in all matrices from Burrishoole. Passive samplers were successfully deployed to identify for the first time the presence in the water column of PCDD/Fs and dimethoxylated octachlorodiphenyl ether (diMeOoctaCDE), impurities found in pentachlorophenol (PCP) production. Principal component analysis (PCA) identified similarities between PCDD/F profiles in technical PCP mixtures and environmental samples from the Burrishoole region. Results strongly suggest residual PCDD contamination associated with historic local use of a dioxin contaminated product in the catchment area, with pentachlorophenol a strong candidate.

Essential Terrestrial Variable data workflows for distributed water resources modeling

This paper discusses a prototype infrastructure, HydroTerre, that provides researchers, educators and resource managers with seamless access to geospatial/geotemporal data for supporting physics-based numerical models. The prototype defines the supporting data as Essential Terrestrial Variables (ETV's) and includes data fusion tools necessary to predict and manage surface and groundwater resources that resolve important dynamics of upland stream networks. The evaluation of ecosystem and watershed services, such as the detection and attribution of the impact of climatic change, provides one of many examples of the pressing need for high resolution, spatially explicit resource assessments in upland catchments. However, the current infrastructure for supporting models and data anywhere in the continental USA (CONUS) must overcome important problems of: efficient accessibility to high resolution geospatial datasets from multiple sources, scalability of geospatial data in support of distributed models and data-intensive computation for multi-scale, multi-state simulations.We discuss data workflows for web access to ETV data processing in support of catchment modeling, as part of a larger strategy for consuming this data within a framework that enables hydrological modelers to build and test models with fast data access at a United States Geological Survey (USGS) National Hydrography Dataset Hydrological Unit Code (HUC) level-12 scale. Given the prospect of petabytes of existing high resolution environmental data (NRC, 2012), we limit our investigation to a limited set of ETV's necessary to provide the first level of support for model implementation anywhere in the CONUS, and that resolve important features of upland watersheds (e.g. hill slopes within 1st–2nd–3rd order streams). The paper demonstrates HydroTerre tools for fast ETV data access to web users, and describes the computational resources necessary for using ETV's as the basis for implementing spatially distributed models at scales approaching the native resolution of the data (≥30 m). The Penn State Integrated Hydrologic Model (PIHM) serves as an example although other models are currently being considered.

Transient hydrological conditions implied by chloride mass balance in southeast Australian rivers

A robust correlation between electrical conductivity (EC) values and Cl concentrations in river water from southeast Australia allows detailed Cl fluxes to be calculated from continuous EC and river discharge records. Many Victorian rivers export significantly more Cl than is delivered to their catchments by rainfall. Cl* is defined as the mass of Cl exported in the rivers relative to that input by rainfall over a multi-year period (Cl*=100% indicates that the river exports the same mass of Cl as is input by rainfall). There is a systematic relationship between catchment type and Cl*. Rivers draining cleared plains have Cl* values between 50 and 750%, rivers draining volcanic plains have Cl* values of 770–1600%, whereas rivers with large forested upland catchments have Cl* values of 50–110%. These values are minima as they do not account for Cl exported by groundwater from the catchments. The calculations are based on long-term (up to 22year) records that span drought and high rainfall periods. The magnitude of Cl* is far higher than can be explained by errors in the calculations or variability in rainfall and runoff, and Cl/Br ratios preclude halite dissolution as a source of Cl. The excess Cl reflects hydrological changes in the catchments. Land clearing on the cleared plains has caused the rise of regional water tables which results in the export of Cl from saline groundwater via increased baseflow to the river systems. Drainage systems on the volcanic plains are re-establishing following impoundment by recent (<4.5Ma) lava flows; Cl which accumulated in shallow groundwater around saline lakes and marshes developed on these volcanic plains is now being exported via the rivers. The upland catchments have undergone less landscape change and may be in chemical balance. The methodology outlined here provides a straightforward assessment of whether catchments are in chemical balance that may in turn indicate whether they are undergoing hydrological changes.

Catchment salt balances in the Queensland Murray–Darling Basin, Australia

Catchment salt mass balances and export/import ratios were calculated for 55 gauging stations in nine major catchments across the Queensland Murray–Darling Basin (QMDB), Australia. Salt inputs were comprised of atmospheric, groundwater and inter-basin transfer contributions, while exports were derived from model runs calibrated to streamflow data and flow-salt relationships. Catchment atmospheric salt inputs were larger than groundwater inputs in the major catchments, with the exception of the Condamine catchment. Across the whole QMDB, the magnitude of atmospheric and groundwater inputs is potentially equal. Average annual streamflow salt export is generally much less than salt input, even when atmospheric inputs alone are considered, and is strongly influenced by episodic, large events. The exceptions to this are some smaller salt-affected upland catchments in the eastern QMDB where flow is more continual (i.e. baseflow occurs) and stream salinity is higher – a result of long-term land use change impacts. Variability in catchment salt export/import ratio (E/I) as a result of different calculation methods for both inputs and outputs creates a wide range in possible E/I for some sites, but trends remain the same. Losses of stream water to floodplains, seepage and extractions in lower portions of catchments leads to significant reductions in E/I with distance downstream. It appears that in general, the natural status of the QMDB is one of salt accumulation and significant hydrologic changes – as represented through salt mass balance calculations – are largely confined to the eastern half of the Basin, although further change may yet express in the landscape.

Parameterization for distributed watershed modeling using national data and evolutionary algorithm

Distributed hydrologic models supported by national soil survey, geology, topography and vegetation data products can provide valuable information about the watershed hydrologic cycle. However numerical simulation of the multi-state, multi-process system is structurally complex and computationally intensive. This presents a major difficulty in model calibration using traditional techniques. This paper presents an efficient calibration strategy for the physics-based, fully coupled, distributed hydrologic model Penn State Integrated Hydrologic Model (PIHM) with the support of national data products. PIHM uses a semi-discrete Finite Volume Method (FVM) formulation of the system of coupled ordinary differential equations (e.g. canopy interception, transpiration, soil evaporation) and partial differential equations (e.g. groundwater-surface water, overland flow, infiltration, channel flow, etc.). The matrix of key parameters to be estimated in the optimization process was partitioned into two groups according to the sensitivity to difference in time scales. The first group of parameters generally describes hydrologic processes influenced by hydrologic events (event-scale group: EG), which are sensitive to short time runoff generation, while the second group of parameters is largely influenced by seasonal changes in energy (seasonal time scale group: SG). The Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES) is used to optimize the EG parameters in Message Passing Interface (MPI) environment, followed by the estimation of parameters in the SG. The calibration strategy was applied at three watersheds in central PA: a small upland catchment (8.4ha), a watershed in the Appalachian Plateau (231km2) and the Valley and Ridge of central Pennsylvania (843km2). A partition calibration enabled a fast and efficient estimation of parameters.

Neogene rejuvenation of central Appalachian topography: Evidence for differential rock uplift from stream profiles and erosion rates

The persistence of topography within ancient orogens remains one of the outstanding questions in landscape evolution. In the eastern North American Appalachians, this question is manifest in the outstanding problem of whether topographic relief is in a quasi-equilibrium state, decaying slowly over many millennia, or whether relief has increased during the late Cenozoic. Here we present quantitative geomorphic data from the nonglaciated portion of the Susquehanna River drainage basin that provide insight into these end-member models. Analysis of channel profiles draining upland catchments in the northern Valley and Ridge, Appalachian Plateau, Blue Ridge, and Piedmont provinces reveals that a large number of streams have well defined knickpoints clustered at 300–600m elevation but not systematically associated with transitions from weak to resistant substrate. Cosmogenic 10Be inventories of modern stream sediment indicate that erosion rates are spatially variable, ranging from ~5–30m/Myr above knickpoints to ~50–100m/Myr below knickpoints. Overall, channel gradients, normalized for drainage area, scale linearly with catchment-averaged erosion rates. Collectively, regionally consistent spatial relationships among erosion rate, channel steepness, and knickpoints reveal an ongoing wave of transient channel adjustment to a change in relative base level. Reconstructions of relict channel profiles above knickpoints suggest that higher rates of incision are associated with ~100–150m of relative base level fall that accompanied epierogenic rock uplift rather than a change to a more erosive climate or drainage reorganization. Channel response timescales imply that the onset of relative base level change predates ~3.5Ma and may have begun as early as ~15Ma. We suggest that adjustment of the channel network was likely driven by changes in mantle dynamics along the eastern seaboard of North America during the Neogene.

Probing the deep critical zone beneath the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico

ABSTRACTRecent work has suggested that weathering processes occurring in the subsurface produce the majority of silicate weathering products discharged to the world's oceans, thereby exerting a primary control on global temperature via the well‐known positive feedback between silicate weathering and CO2. In addition, chemical and physical weathering processes deep within the critical zone create aquifers and control groundwater chemistry, watershed geometry and regolith formation rates. Despite this, most weathering studies are restricted to the shallow critical zone (e.g. soils, outcrops). Here we investigate the chemical weathering, fracturing and geomorphology of the deep critical zone in the Bisley watershed in the Luquillo Critical Zone Observatory, Puerto Rico, from two boreholes drilled to 37.2 and 27.0 m depth, from which continuous core samples were taken. Corestones exposed aboveground were also sampled. Weathered rinds developed on exposed corestones and along fracture surfaces on subsurface rocks slough off of exposed corestones once rinds attain a thickness up to ~1 cm, preventing the corestones from rounding due to diffusion limitation. Such corestones at the land surface are assumed to be what remains after exhumation of similar, fractured bedrock pieces that were observed in the drilled cores between thick layers of regolith. Some of these subsurface corestones are massive and others are highly fractured, whereas aboveground corestones are generally massive with little to no apparent fracturing. Subsurface corestones are larger and less fractured in the borehole drilled on a road where it crosses a ridge compared with the borehole drilled where the road crosses the stream channel. Both borehole profiles indicate that the weathering zone extends to well below the stream channel in this upland catchment; hence weathering depth is not controlled by the stream level within the catchment and not all of the water in the watershed is discharged to the stream. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Temporal buffering of climate-driven sediment flux cycles by transient catchment response

The marine sedimentary record can exhibit a systematic cyclicity that is consistent with climate variability driven by Milankovitch-scale forcing. Milankovitch-band cyclicity is widely interpreted in the hemipelagic and pelagic sediments of the marine realm, and in terrestrial paleoenvironments has been observed in lacustrine sediments, soils and river floodplain successions. It remains unclear, however, if and how mountain catchments, as a primary sediment source, respond to these high frequency (<106yr) climatic cycles, and whether particulate sediment flux signals can be expected to be recorded in the clastic sedimentary record of adjacent basin-fills. Recent field and theoretical studies suggest that mountain catchments respond transiently to high frequency forcing, and so sediment discharge from the catchment is a non-linear function of forcing variables. Using a catchment–basin model, we demonstrate that climate-driven cyclicity in particulate sediment discharge is strongly damped when the period of climate variability is shorter than the response timescale of the eroding landscape. Given that the response timescale of landscapes is of the order of 106yr, and that Milankovitch-driven climate cyclicity is of the order of 104–105yr, it is likely that climate-driven perturbation of upland catchments at these periods will be strongly damped by transient landscape behaviour. Our results therefore suggest that stratigraphy built by particulate fluxes from upland catchments, and long-term trends in the sediment delivery to the ocean, may be relatively insensitive to short-term climate variability.

Holocene floodplain deposition and scale effects in a typical European upland catchment: A case study from the Amblève catchment, Ardennes (Belgium)

This study quantifies Holocene alluvial sediment deposition in the Belgian Amblève catchment (1080 km2), situated in the Ardennes uplands. An extended coring data set is used for a quantitative description and a quantification of the alluvial depositions. The floodplains fall into three main types: the upper and lower floodplains and the steep reaches. Total Holocene alluvial sediment deposition amounts to 32 Tg, or 0.029 Tg/km2. Dating of sediments using iron slag as tracer shows that on average 42% of contemporary storage was accumulated during the last 600 years. Radiocarbon dating of fluvial deposits at eight sites in the catchment confirms that the majority of the sediment is relatively recent. The increased sedimentation rates for this period are related to anthropogenic land use, possibly enhanced by climatic variations. A fluvial sediment budget was constructed for this 600 yr time period and shows that export from the catchment has about the same importance as storage in the floodplains, while lateral reworking of existing floodplain deposits only affects half the quantity of sediments. Overall, floodplain sediment storage in the Amblève catchment, comparable with other upland catchments, is of lesser importance compared with catchments dominated by loess. This can mainly be explained by lower sediment supply resulting from less intense anthropogenic land use, despite the higher sediment transport efficiency through the fluvial system. Floodplain sediment storage is scale-dependent, with initially a sharp increase in catchment area-specific sediment deposition, followed by a steady decrease with increasing catchment area.

Delineating hydrologic response units in large upland catchments and its evaluation using soil moisture simulations

We present here a basis for delineating Hydrologic Response Units (HRUs) to capture heterogeneity in the catchment's topography, landforms and geomorphologic attributes. To delineate topologically connected HRUs, the catchment is divided into four landforms and sub-basins. These four major landforms represent macroscopic changes in the catchment landscapes, using thresholds derived from a range of terrain analysis techniques – the Cumulative Area Distribution (CAD) curve, average local slope, curvature, Compound Topographic Index (CTI) and the MultiResolution Valley Bottom Flatness (MRVBF) index. The adequacy of the HRUs delineation approach is ascertained by soil moisture movement modelling in the unsaturated zone based on a two-dimensional solution of Richards' equation, across multiple cross-sections of the catchment. The modelling results of the four landform delineated cross-sections are compared with those from the simplest case of a single landform delineated cross-section and with the most complex case of cross-sections divided on a pixel basis. The modelling results indicate gain in accuracy when using the four landform formulation compared to the use of a single landform, and little loss of accuracy compared to simulations on a pixel basis. This study investigates the stability of this HRUs delineation methodology using the data for the Maclaughlin, Bombala and Delegate catchments of the Snowy River at Burnt Hut, New South Wales, Australia.