Unresolved Status Research Articles

Stress and resolution in mothers of children with cerebral palsy

Parental resolution of diagnosis represents coming to terms with and accepting the diagnosis of a serious condition in their child. As risk factors for achieving resolution, we investigated: a child's functional status, cumulative stress, and maternal depression. The current study tested the hypothesis that mothers who are unresolved to their child's diagnosis would have considerably higher levels of risk factors, compared to resolved mothers. We also examined whether the observed risk factors could predict the resolution status. Maternal resolution was assessed by means of the Reaction to Diagnosis Interview. The sample consisted of 100 mothers of children aged 2–7, diagnosed with cerebral palsy. The results showed that unresolved mothers had children with poorer functional status, experienced more stressful life events, and were more depressed compared to resolved ones. The functional status of a child and maternal depression were shown to be significant resolution predictors. Importantly, they were more successful in predicting the resolved than the unresolved status. Further research is needed in order to investigate more extensively the unresolved parental status.

Species Richness of Montane Herpetofauna of Southern Eastern Ghats, India: A Historical Resume and a Descriptive Checklist

We examined the amphibian and squamate reptilian species richness of Southern Eastern Ghats based on a long term-field survey with nearly two years of field days. We surveyed high elevation slopes (>900 m a.s.l.) of four select hill ranges namely Jawadi, Shevaroys, Kolli, and Sirumalai hills which comprehensively represented full geographical and spatial coverage. We present a descriptive species-account with basic morphological data supported by voucher photographs. We summarize the history of herpetological explorations in this landscape and also comment on some of the major previous works in the region. Our study revealed the presence of 62 species in the montane zones, including 32 (51%) new records involving all the three target taxa (frogs, lizards and snakes) and all the four hill ranges that testify the poor knowledge on the region’s herpetofauna till date. Lastly, we remark on the unresolved taxonomic status of some species recorded in the present study. We recommend specimen-based revisionary works in the nearby Western Ghats, where such taxa are much more diverse, to enable taxonomic studies in this region.

Phylogenetic relationships of the ubiquitous coral reef crab subfamily Chlorodiellinae (Decapoda, Brachyura, Xanthidae)

The xanthid subfamily Chlorodiellinae is one of the most ubiquitous coral reef crab taxa in the Indo‐West Pacific region. Many species are common in coral rubble and rocky shores from Hawaii to eastern Africa, often dominating reef cryptofauna in terms of biomass. Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial (COX1, 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA) and nuclear (histone H3) gene sequences of 202 specimens indicate that the Chlorodiellinae is polyphyletic as presently defined. Three genera, Pilodius, Cyclodius and Chlorodiella, and two previously undescribed lineages were recovered as a well‐supported clade. In combination with morphological data, the subfamily is redefined and restricted to this clade. Two new genera, Soliella gen. n., and Luniella gen. n., are described based on features of the carapace, male thoracic sternum and male gonopods. The remaining chlorodielline genera and members of the Etisinae, a subfamily with supposedly close morphological affinities to the Chlorodiellinae, were recovered at various positions throughout the xanthid phylogeny, although with relatively low support values. These results reiterate the unresolved status of xanthid subfamilial relationships, but nevertheless provide progress for xanthid systematics.

Energy market integration and regional institutions in east Asia

This article assesses the case made for energy market integration in East Asia by comparing the role of institutions in South East Asia and North East Asia. The types and functions of institutions and their overall structure are examined in light of global energy market trends. In South East Asia, the shift attempted by ASEAN towards more competitive markets is hampered by the remaining statist variants of the trade institution and bilateral energy diplomacy, which, as regards transaction cost functions, are sub-optimal. As for institutions with order-creating functions, the unresolved status of sovereignty within ASEAN hampers regulatory harmonisation; the great power management institution has since ASEAN׳s establishment reduced conflicts without providing decisive leadership conducive to integration. North East Asia׳s dependence on global energy markets overshadows the regional integration potential of the diverse liberalisation efforts and interconnection projects. Bilateral energy diplomacies, new trilateral institutions combined with ‘Track Two’ institutions and remaining great power competition co-exist. In both regions the institutional structure allows for step-wise, technical infrastructure integration. The environmental stewardship institution co-exists with statist energy security and development objectives while it supports cooperation on green energy. The overall structure of informal institutions constrains deeper energy market integration in several ways.

Very extensive nonmaternal care predicts mother-infant attachment disorganization: Convergent evidence from two samples.

We examined whether a maximum threshold of time spent in nonmaternal care exists, beyond which infants have an increased risk of forming a disorganized infant-mother attachment. The hours per week infants spent in nonmaternal care at 7-8 months were examined as a continuous measure and as a dichotomous threshold (over 40, 50 and 60 hr/week) to predict infant disorganization at 12-15 months. Two different samples (Austin and NICHD) were used to replicate findings and control for critical covariates: mothers' unresolved status and frightening behavior (assessed in the Austin sample, N = 125), quality of nonmaternal caregiving (assessed in the NICHD sample, N = 1,135), and family income and infant temperament (assessed in both samples). Only very extensive hours of nonmaternal care (over 60 hr/week) and mothers' frightening behavior independently predicted attachment disorganization. A polynomial logistic regression performed on the larger NICHD sample indicated that the risk of disorganized attachment exponentially increased after exceeding 60 hr/week. In addition, very extensive hours of nonmaternal care only predicted attachment disorganization after age 6 months (not prior). Findings suggest that during a sensitive period of attachment formation, infants who spend more than 60 hr/week in nonmaternal care may be at an increased risk of forming a disorganized attachment.

Allopatric speciation within a cryptic species complex of Australasian octopuses.

Despite extensive revisions over recent decades, the taxonomy of benthic octopuses (Family Octopodidae) remains in a considerable flux. Among groups of unresolved status is a species complex of morphologically similar shallow-water octopods from subtropical Australasia, including: Allopatric populations of Octopus tetricus on the eastern and western coasts of Australia, of which the Western Australian form is speculated to be a distinct or sub-species; and Octopus gibbsi from New Zealand, a proposed synonym of Australian forms. This study employed a combination of molecular and morphological techniques to resolve the taxonomic status of the ‘tetricus complex’. Phylogenetic analyses (based on five mitochondrial genes: 12S rRNA, 16S rRNA, COI, COIII and Cytb) and Generalised Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC) analysis (based on COI, COIII and Cytb) distinguished eastern and Western Australian O. tetricus as distinct species, while O. gibbsi was found to be synonymous with the east Australian form (BS = >97, PP = 1; GMYC p = 0.01). Discrete morphological differences in mature male octopuses (based on sixteen morphological traits) provided further evidence of cryptic speciation between east (including New Zealand) and west coast populations; although females proved less useful in morphological distinction among members of the tetricus complex. In addition, phylogenetic analyses suggested populations of octopuses currently treated under the name Octopus vulgaris are paraphyletic; providing evidence of cryptic speciation among global populations of O. vulgaris, the most commercially valuable octopus species worldwide.

Pre- and post-mating reproductive barriers drive divergence of five sympatric species of Naryciinae moths (Lepidoptera: Psychidae)

The biological species concept suggests that species can be separated on the basis of reproductive isolation. However, because natural interbreeding capabilities are often unknown, differences in morphology are generally used to separate species. Alternatively, genetic dissimilarity is used to separate morphologically similar species. Many genetic markers, including the maternally inherited mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I sequence, cannot show interbreeding and therefore species status of groups may remain unresolved. In species of the genera Dahlica and Siederia (Lepidoptera: Psychidae: Naryciinae) the lack of morphological distinction and unknown interbreeding has led to unclear and unresolved taxonomic status. Mitochondrial DNA sequences suggest five sexual species to occur in Finland. However, their species status remains unconfirmed, due to a lack of knowledge on interbreeding, unclear morphological distinction and the limited variation in mitochondrial DNA. We combine three methods, a cross-mating experiment, an analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, and a detailed male genital morphological examination, to establish the species status of the five suspected species. All suspected species exhibit intraspecies mating preference, although several interspecies pairs readily produce offspring. The genetic analysis, however, fails to show hybrids or introgression, suggesting that both pre- and post-copulation mechanisms isolate the species reproductively. Morphological analysis of the male genitalia confirms that the species have diverged. Our results highlight the need of combining behavioural, morphological and genetic methods to determine species status in challenging taxonomic groups. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 112, 584–605.

Morphological and molecular diversity of the wild carrot Daucus pusillus: implications for classification and ex situ conservation

Daucus pusillus Michx. and Daucus montevidensis Link ex Spreng. are wild carrots from the Americas with unresolved taxonomic status. An investigation was carried out with accessions of D. pusillus and (or) D. montevidensis from Argentina for (i) morphological and molecular (amplified fragments length polymorphism (AFLP) and inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR)) characterization, (ii) analysis of congruence of morphological and molecular variation, and (iii) comparison of diversity for the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region with that reported for a North American accession of D. pusillus. Twelve accessions of D. pusillus and (or) D. montevidensis — representing their geographical distribution in Argentina — and one accession each of wild Daucus carota L. and Daucus montanus Humb. & Bonpl. ex Schult. — as outgroups — were included. In the multivariate analysis of morphological diversity, two accessions were clearly differentiated; this result is not sustained by multivariate analysis of molecular diversity. Based on multivariate and molecular variance (AMOVA) analyses, D. pusillus and (or) D. montevidensis accessions were separated at the molecular level into two groups, associated with geographical origin. Because this result is not supported by morphology, the segregation into two taxa seems unjustified. In all accessions, ITS and 5.8S rDNA regions had identical sequences, which differ in one nucleotide from the corresponding sequence of the North American accession. According to the combined results, D. pusillus would be a single taxon distributed from North to South America, and D. montevidensis a nomenclatural synonym. Autogamy of D. pusillus and its highly structured genetic diversity (Fst = 0.86) allows the application of a geographically targeted approach for germplasm exploration, conservation and eventual use in pre-breeding.

2008 Georgian-Russian war

In August 2008, a short-lasting but violent war broke in the Caucasus between Georgia and Russia, which shocked the whole world. The West had shown little interest in the long-term tension within the country at the foot of the Caucasus arising from the unresolved status of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. These problems, as well as a strong pro-western course of Georgia under the guidance of President Micheil Saakaschwili, inevitably led to war with Russia.

The Case of Helene Hegemann: Queerness, Failure, and the German Girl

Helene Hegemann’s 2010 novel Axolotl Roadkill, whose author was seventeen at the time of publication, provoked an instructive controversy. The debates the novel triggered tell us a great deal about contemporary German literary and cultural ideals, especially as far as girls and young women are concerned. Hegemann’s work in fact “queers” such ideals, evoking though its sixteen-year-old heroine Mifti a traumatized yet defiantly perverse subject. The novel’s content, however, has been overshadowed by media discussions of its author, a contested and provocative figure who herself challenges established models of femininity. In this article, I consequently begin by discussing the reception of Hegemann, concentrating on the questions of age, gender, and Germanness. I go on to examine Axolotl Roadkill, asking how the novel itself conceives of subjectivity, generationality, and nationality. In addition, I discuss the novel as a queer text. I suggest that Mifti – and the novel itself – illustrate what Judith Halberstam terms “the queer art of failure.”Mifti and Hegemann are triumphant failures as German girls. They thus ask us to consider critically what passes for normality and success in our times. Hegemann’s youth unsurprisingly attracted comment in media coverage of the author, but other factors contributed to the furore surrounding the publication of her novel. The autobiographical status of her work was the subject of speculation, with the prominence of the author’s father, the dramatist Carl Hegemann, serving only to add piquancy (see Marz). But Hegemann attracted even greater attention when it was revealed that her novel quotes passages from a blog by a writer known as Airen (now published as a book, see Airen), a revelation that led to a flurry of articles in the press about plagiarism and the internet, authorship and intertextuality, and to either condemnation or defence. Hegemann’s lack of repentance in the face of the revelation drew criticism. Some commentators, however, have situated the writer in a tradition of “borrowing” that goes back to Thomas Mann and Shakespeare (Graf).1 There is an interesting contradiction here: on the one hand, Hegemann’s work has widely been viewed as autobiographical; on the other, it has been seen as an example of derivativeness or even theft. This contradictoriness points to the unresolved status of literature in

Mothers’ resolution of their children’s diagnosis of cerebral palsy

The process of adaptation and acceptance of a child's diagnosis of cerebral palsy requires from parents to process the trauma caused by this knowledge cognitively and emotionally. Parents who manage to come to terms with their children's condition are labeled as resolved. As opposed to them, unresolved parents do not accept the reality of their children's condition and fail to overcome the crisis caused by knowledge of the child's diagnosis. Unresolved status has negative implications for the child, the parents and their relationship. Two case reports of mothers whose children have been diagnosed to have cerebral palsy are given. The first case shows a resolved mother who managed to overcome the initial shock and started to feel a sense of relief from the period when she found out the child's diagnosis. In contrast, another case shows an unresolved mother with no significant changes in thoughts and feelings from the time since she learned the child's diagnosis. She was preoccupied with anger and attempted to minimize the child's problem. Interviews on reaction to diagnosis and reaction to diagnosis classification system allow identification of mothers' resolution of their children's diagnosis of cerebral palsy. The characteristics of resolved and unresolved maternal status are discussed. Parental resolution of diagnosis is essential for the successful adaptation to raising children with disabilities, as well as meeting the requirements of the parental role. It is important to recognize parental cognitions and feelings regarding the child's condition in order to direct psychotherapeutic interventions towards vulnerable population of parents.

The reporting of maltreatment experiences during the Adult Attachment Interview in a sample of pregnant adolescents

This present student examines maltreatment experiences reported by 55 high-risk pregnant adolescents in response to a slightly adapted version of the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI; George, Kaplan, & Main, 1996). Previous research has suggested that the rates of unresolved states of mind regarding trauma in response to the AAI may be underestimated due to the lack of direct questions and associated probes regarding physical, sexual, and emotional abuse. We address this concern by including behaviorally phrased questions and probes regarding maltreatment experiences into the original format of the AAI and examine the concordance between reports of maltreatment experiences in response to the AAI and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). Maltreatment experiences in response to the AAI were evaluated using the Maltreatment Classification Scale developed by Barnett, Manly, and Cicchetti (1993). We also examine the association between unresolved states of mind and dissociation using the Adolescent Dissociative Experience Scale. Results revealed a significant concordance between reports of maltreatment in response to the AAI and CTQ measures. Reports of maltreatment were prevalent in this sample: across the AAI and CTQ measures, 96% of pregnant adolescents reported some form of emotional abuse, 84% physical abuse, 59% sexual abuse, and 88% reported neglect. Sexual abuse history uniquely predicted unresolved status in response to the AAI. Self-reports of dissociation were significantly associated with unresolved states of mind. Results suggest that the inclusion of behaviorally focused questions and probes regarding maltreatment in the AAI protocol can further contribute to the clinical and theoretical value of this tool.

Proximate Causes of Sexual Size Dimorphism in Horseshoe Crabs (Limulus polyphemus) of the Delaware Bay

The unresolved status of the proximate cause for sexual size dimorphism in horseshoe crabs has practical consequence, because harvest recommendations rely on assumptions about sex-specific growth and maturity. We propose and evaluate competing hypotheses for the proximate cause of sexual size dimorphism in horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus )b y comparing size and estimated age frequencies from spring-captured juveniles (n ¼ 9,075) and adults (n ¼ 36,274) to predictions from the competing hypotheses. We found that the number of identifiable juvenile size distributions was greater for females than males and the probability of remaining a juvenile was higher for females than males among older juveniles. These findings are consistent with males maturing earlier than females. Molt increments and mean sizes were similar for male and female juveniles, which is not consistent with differential growth. Among adults, one size distribution accounted for $90% of females regardless of carapace wear. Also, size ratio of adult females to males was 1.26, and size ratio of the largest adult to largest juvenile female was 1.28. These observations are not consistent with females continuing to molt as adults. Differential-maturity is the most parsimonious explanation for sexual size dimorphism in Delaware Bay horseshoe crabs. In addition, because of a low frequency of juvenile females >195 mm relative to adult females and male-biased sex ratios starting at 105 mm, we hypothesize that females, more than males, migrate as older juveniles and mature in the ocean. Management implications include that (1) minimum size limits, as previously suggested, would not allocate harvest to older adults as intended because size does not indicate age among adult horseshoe crabs in the Delaware Bay population, and (2) the Shuster Horseshoe Crab Reserve, which has reduced harvest on the continental shelf, could be protecting older juveniles and newly mature females from harvest prior to their first spawn.

Securing ‘from within’

The dissolution of the Soviet Union resulted not only interindependence for Moldova. It also served as a push factor for the secessionist conflict on its territory which due to its unresolved status is referred to as frozen. All attempts of the political settlement since 1990s have ended in deadlock. Interestingly, the EU policies towards Transnistria changed significantly in 2003-2004. From the ‘security consumer’ the EU has been slowly turning into the ‘security provider’. The main goal of this paper is to evaluate the impact of the EU in ensuring security and stability through its involvement in the Transnistrian conflict. For this purpose the study will focus on EU-Moldova relations and the instrument it dedicates to ensuring stability, the EU Border Assistance Mission.

Taxonomy and ribosomal DNA-based phylogeny of the Electra crustulenta species group (Bryozoa: Cheilostomata) with revision of Borg's varieties and description of Electra moskvikvendi sp. nov. from the Western Baltic Sea

In 1931, Borg distinguished five “varieties” as morphologically differing from what he perceived as the ‘typical form’ of Electra crustulenta (Pallas, 1766). Taxonomic status has not been resolved for all of those morphotypes. One of them was recently recognized as a separate species, E. arctica; two are considered as species in other genera. In the present study the remaining three of Borg's subdivisions, “forma typica”, “var. baltica” and “var. fossaria”, were analyzed to evaluate their status and reconstruct phylogenetic relationships within the whole species group based on ribosomal 16S mtDNA and 18S nDNA. All known E. crustulenta-like species and forms with unresolved status were included: E. crustulenta (including “f. typica”, “var. baltica” and “var. fossaria”), E. arctica, E. korobokkura, and Electra moskvikvendi sp. nov. A well-supported phylogeny fully concordant for both genetic markers was obtained with maximum parsimony, neighbor-joining, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods. Statistical parsimony was applied to the 16S dataset. Only four species were revealed regardless of the method or gene fragment, with E. crustulenta as a single species. There was no evident correlation between the morphotypes “f. typica”, “var. baltica” and “var. fossaria” and haplogroups found in E. crustulenta populations. The E. crustulenta species group consisted of two subgroups: E. crustulenta– E. korobokkura and E. moskvikvendi– E. arctica. Divergence of the mitochondrial lineages within the group was dated using a Bayesian relaxed-clock approach. Most probably the diversification of the lineages examined started in the Early Miocene. Electra arctica and E. moskvikvendi sp. nov. are two young species, having diverged during the Pliocene–Pleistocene. The new species described here was found in the Western Baltic Sea, Kiel Bay. An identification key for the E. crustulenta species group is given, based on morphology, morphometry, and geographical and ecological ranges. Additionally, reference sequences of 16S and 18S DNA for each species, which can be used for DNA-based barcoding, have been published.

Gender Identity Disorder and psychotherapy: an attachment theory perspective

Objective The current research project was aimed to explore in adult patients suffering from Gender Identity Disorder (GID) the theme related to the specific nature of the States of Mind with Regard to Attachment and the influence of the Dismissing Attachment Internal Working Model on the relative resistance to the psychological investigation of the patients’clinical and existential experiences. Methodology All patients suffering from GID, who came to the Functional Area of Psychology of the Department of Neuroscience of Federico II University Hospital requesting treatment to provide psychological assistance for problems connected to Gender Dysphoria, among 2005 and 2007, were registered in sequential order. The following tests were administered to all patients: 1) MMPI-2; 2) Adult Attachment Interview. The statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS 12.0. Results The results confirm the increase, among people with this disorder, of Insecure Conditions of the Mind, especially of the Dismissing type, and of Unresolved Status of the Mind with respect to Traumas or Losses. Moreover, dismissing subjects tend to reflect a relative resistance to psychotherapeutic treatment. Discussion On the basis of the preliminary results of our research, we discuss how psychological intervention could have a dual objective: 1) Improving the possibility of access to a more satisfying emotional-relational life. 2) Allowing an adequate working-through of complex traumatic events, which appear to pepper the life experiences of individuals with this condition and which often seem not have been adequately worked through.

Childhood maltreatment, complex trauma symptoms, and unresolved attachment in an at-risk sample of adolescent mothers

Associations between unresolved attachment, abuse history, and a wide range of trauma-related symptomatology were examined in an at-risk sample (N = 62). Fifty percent reported severe childhood physical and/or sexual abuse. An independent trauma interview elicited more reports of childhood sexual abuse than the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI); conversely, the AAI elicited more reports of physical abuse. Childhood physical abuse, sexual abuse, and general maltreatment were associated with unresolved status. Furthermore, sexual abuse history and general maltreatment predicted unresolved loss, suggesting that they adversely affected the integration of other emotional and/or traumatic experiences. Women classified as Unresolved reported higher levels of dissociation, confusion regarding self-identity, and relationship problems. Findings complement and extend empirical support for the theorized association between dissociative processes and unresolved attachment.

Self-Determination and Indigenous Peoples in International Law

In an era of pragmatism, dominated by institutions in international law, scholars have so far failed to move away from longstanding elitist attitudes and practices regarding the politics of power inherent in international relations and in international law. To no surprise, questions of universality and particularity keep recurring with little hope of resolution. This is especially evident in the arena of international human rights law, where human rights discourse claims universality while remaining deeply embedded in the colonial sources of the international legal order. At the same time, such rights discourses offer promises of liberation by mobilizing marginalized peoples everywhere. By focusing on indigenous1 rights in international law, this investigation seeks to engage with a larger contemporary inquiry into the universalist aspirations of the public international legal order and the continued debate over the possibility of globally accepted human rights. As a result of a state-centred international legal order, the unresolved status of indigenous claims unfolds in the context of a global struggle over universal human rights, where indigenous rights do not seem to be easily recognizable in either the national or international arena. This analysis will examine the struggle over the recognition of indigenous peoples as subjects under public international law and their right to self determination as expressed in Articles 1 and 55 of the UN Charter, as well as in common Article 1 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR). Three guiding questions will orient the analysis. First, Part II will address whether the established human rights discourse can serve as a strategic tool for indigenous peoples, or whether it works to delegitimize indigenous discourses and world views. Second, Part III examines the difference, if any, between the present situation of indigenous peoples in international law from that of previous historical periods. And finally, Part IV asks whether a contradiction exists between the right to self-determination as a liberating, legal instrument, and the current politics of national reconciliation that purport to bring peace and security.

Kosovo and Balkan Stability

As the process of determining Kosovo’s future status enters its final stages, everyone’s worst case scenario—a unilateral declaration of independence by Kosovo Albanian authorities, without United Nations Security Council approval—appears increasingly likely. The diplomatic mismanagement of this process is largely to blame for the fact that the international community has arrived at such an impasse. The most pressing issue now is how all the major international actors (e.g., the United States, the European Union, Russia, NATO, the OSCE, etc.) involved can react to and control the likely consequences of such a development. The guiding assumption of current U.S. policy (and of a large number of Balkan observers ) is that the Balkans are relatively stable, and that whatever spillover effects may result from the outcome of Kosovo’s future status can be controlled; in fact, in this view, the greatest threat to Balkan stability comes from not resolving Kosovo’s status. These assumptions are also either explicit or implicit in the so-called “Ahtisaari Plan” for Kosovo presented to the UN Security Council in March 2006. Several strong arguments favor moving forward with determining Kosovo’s future status: respecting the right to self-determination of the vast majority of Kosovo’s inhabitants; the fact that it is difficult to conceive of a situation in which, after eight years of international administration, it would be possible to return Kosovo to any form of meaningful rule from Belgrade; and the fact that Kosovo’s unresolved status makes it difficult for Kosovo to receive access to several sources of development aid from international financial institutions like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. What remains open to valid debate, however, are the timing and the pace of the determination of Kosovo’s future status, the actual state of Balkan stability, and how an independent Kosovo is likely to affect it. In contrast to the assumptions governing U.S. policy noted above, a strong argument can be made that the current political moment in the Balkans is extremely delicate. South Eastern Europe is experiencing its most profound period of change since the end of the Kosovo

Unresolved states of mind, disorganized attachment relationships, and disrupted interactions of adolescent mothers and their infants.

The links between unresolved maternal attachment status, disrupted maternal interaction in play situations, and disorganized attachment relationships were examined in a study of 82 adolescent mother-infant dyads. Maternal interactive behavior was measured using the Atypical Maternal Behavior Instrument for Assessment and Classification coding system. Additional rating scales were developed to correspond to the 5 dimensions of disrupted maternal behavior outlined by E. Bronfman, E. Parsons, and K. Lyons-Ruth (1999). A robust association was observed between disrupted maternal behavior and disorganized attachment. Ratings of disrupted maternal behavior revealed that disorganized attachment relationships were strongly related to ratings of fearful/disoriented behavior. Moreover, mothers who were unresolved were more likely than not-unresolved mothers to show disrupted patterns of interaction with their infants. Regression analyses suggested that disrupted behavior statistically mediated the association between unresolved status and disorganized attachment relationships.