Unpleasant Feelings Research Articles

Different methods for management of gaging reflex during prosthetic treatment

Introduction The reflex of gaging and vomiting is an unpleasant feeling. Its purpose is to protect the upper respiratory tract and to remove foreign particles from posterior part of the oropharynx and upper gastrointestinal tract. Gag reflex could also be provoked by psychogenic stimuli modulated by higher brain centers. A common problem in clinical dental practice are patients with hypersensitivity in the oral cavity. Dental care could be a challenge for the dentists. Detailed anamnesis, clinical examination and gaging reflex management contribute to the appropriate approach in oral rehabilitation. Aim The aim of this study is to present different techniques for gaging and vomiting reflex management during prosthetic treatment Materials and Methods Detailed research in electronic databases Google scholar, Scopus, Pubmed and Research gate was conducted from September 2022 until December 2022. The keywords were: gag reflex, management, dentistry, removable partial denture. The literature was in English. Results A total of 542 articles were found during the literature review. In this study 39 original scientific papers meeting the criteria were included. Data and evidence for the importance of gaging reflex management were found in the reviewed articles. Conclusion The gag reflex decreases the effectiveness of the prosthetic treatment. A number of methods for its management are described in the literature and in the practice. The application of some of them is limited by local or general contraindications. Others could be used after an additional training. Regardless of the methods that are chosen, the dentist must take into account the characteristics of each patient and apply an individual approach.

COPING WITH COGNITIVE DECLINE AMONG OLDER ADULTS WITH MILD COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT OR MILD DEMENTIA: A SCOPING REVIEW

Abstract As cognitive impairment progresses, Persons with Mild Cognitive Impairment or Mild Dementia (PwMCI or MD) have trouble in adapting to changes in their cognitive functioning and, as a result, develop challenges in daily activities. If these challenges are not appropriately addressed, PwMCI or MD can experience poor health outcomes and quality of life. Coping, behavioral and cognitive efforts to regulate the distress from a certain stressful situation, is widely regarded as a fundamental determinant of health outcomes. We conducted a scoping review to understand what coping strategies PwMCI or MD used, and facilitators and barriers of the use of these coping strategies. Using the PRISMA-ScR guideline, we reviewed peer-reviewed empirical studies exploring coping experiences for cognitive impairment among community-dwelling PwMCI or MD. We used thematic synthesis to generate themes relevant to the coping strategies and the facilitators and barriers. Of 1267 studies identified, 12 qualitative studies were reviewed. Under three dimensions of coping strategy (i.e., problem-solving, emotional, and maladaptive coping strategies), six themes were identified: independent coping (e.g., use of reminder and practice of cognitive activities), collaborative/dependent coping (e.g., asking help as needed), reframing, expression of unpleasant feelings, comparing self to others, and avoidance. The themes for facilitators and barriers were social response to one’s cognitive impairment, assistance from informal care partners, and support from professionals. These findings can provide not only a better understanding of how people cope with their cognitive impairment but can also provide rationale for developing interventions to maximize the use of coping strategies.

The effect of exercise-induced fatigue and heat exposure on soccer-specific decision-making during high-intensity intermittent exercise.

Global warming and the globalisation of sport has increased the prevalence of sports competitions being held in hot environments. However, there is currently limited research investigating the impact of the heat on soccer-specific decision-making skills during exercise reflective of the physical demands of match-play. Therefore, the effects of heat exposure on physical and soccer-specific decision-making performance, biological markers (i.e., metanephrines), appraisal (i.e., challenge vs. threat) and affective states, during prolonged high-intensity intermittent exercise were investigated. Nine well-trained male soccer players completed a 92-min cycling intermittent sprint protocol (CISP), whilst simultaneously responding to a series of soccer-specific decision-making trials at various time points, in two temperature conditions: hot (32°C, 50%rh) and temperate (18°C, 50%rh). Results showed that decision-making score (p = .030) was impaired in the hot compared to the temperate condition. There was a reduced workload in the second half during the hot condition (p = .016), which coincided with a heightened threat state (p = .007) and more unpleasant feelings (p = .008) experienced in the hot, compared to temperate, condition. Furthermore, plasma normetanephrine (NMET) was higher at half-time (p = .012) and post-CISP (p ≤ .001). Also, plasma metanephrine (MET) was higher post-CISP (p = .009) in the hot compared to temperate condition, reflecting a heightened stress response. Our findings highlight the need for practitioners to consider the detrimental effects heat exposure can have on both physical and decision-making performance when looking to facilitate performance in hot conditions.

Regret in organisational life: An overview and research agenda

AbstractRegret is a remarkably common occurrence and a fundamental part of life. Defined as ‘the emotion that we experience when realising or imagining that our current situation would have been better, if only we had decided differently’, regret comes along with unpleasant feelings and a wish to undo one's present circumstance. Characterised by self‐blame for a poorly made decision, regret materialises following a comparison with a perceived superior alternative outcome, otherwise known as upward counterfactual thinking. Because it originates from this cognitive process, academic analysis of regret developed alongside the scholarship on counterfactual thinking, which burgeoned from the 1980s. However, in the work domain, the study of regret has remained elusive. In the following, we provide an overview of the concept's scholarly study, both more generally and then specifically in work and organisational study. After introducing the articles in this special section, we outline some further avenues for scholarly work on regret in the context of work and organisations.

On the latency of object recognition and affect: Evidence from temporal order and simultaneity judgments.

According to the semantic primacy hypothesis of emotion generation, stimuli must be semantically categorized to evoke emotions. This hypothesis was tested for the subjective component of emotions in four chronometric experiments in which the conscious recognition of emotion-eliciting objects and the onset of affect was timed using temporal order judgments (TOJs, Exp. 1a, 1b, and 3) and simultaneity judgments (SJs, Exp. 2). Participants viewed pictures that elicited pleasant or unpleasant feelings. At varying intervals before and after picture onset, a visual probe stimulus was presented. In separate blocks of trials, the participants judged when they recognized the object shown in the picture and noticed the feeling evoked by the picture: Before or after the probe (TOJs), or simultaneously/not simultaneously with the probe (SJs). Psychometric functions were fitted to the data of the individual participants to determine the point of subjective simultaneity (PSS) of the target events and the probe. In both tasks, the mean PSS of affect occurred significantly later than the PSS of object recognition, with an average delay of about 120 ms. A positive lag between object recognition and affect was found for nearly all participants and pictures. In addition, the latencies of object recognition and affect were positively correlated. The found temporal order of object recognition and affect is consistent with the findings of previous studies using speeded reaction time tasks. Implications of the findings for the cognition-emotion debate and for bodily feedback theories of emotional experience are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Anxiety and Associated Factors Among Clients on Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) in Public Hospitals of Southern Ethiopia: A Multi-Center Cross-Sectional Study.

Anxiety is an unpleasant feeling of fear, apprehension, and nervousness without any apparent stimulus. Anxiety is one of the co-morbidities that are often overlooked in treating patients with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Anxiety is worse among people with HIV/AIDS than the general population. Few studies have been conducted on prevalence of anxiety in people receiving antiretroviral treatment and limited evidence is available on its associated factors. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the magnitude and associated factors of anxiety among clients on highly active antiretroviral therapy in public hospitals of Southern Ethiopia. An institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted in public hospitals of Southern Ethiopia. Simple random sampling method was used to recruit study participants. Data collection was done by using a structured questionnaire regarding medical data related to HIV/AIDS. Seven items of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) were also used to measure the anxiety level. Oslo social support scale and perceived stigma scale were used to measure social support and stigma respectively. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were computed with 95% CI to identify different explanatory variables. Significance was declared at p<0.05. Multi-collinearity was checked by variance inflation factors and Hosmer-Lemeshow test was used to check model fitness. Prevalence of anxiety among clients on HAART in selected public hospitals of Southern Ethiopia was found to be 25.6%. Females (AOR=3.24, 95% CI [1.32, 7.97]), being widowed (AOR=5.47, 95% CI [1.08, 29.72], monthly income 1425-2280 Ethiopian birr (AOR=7.29, 95% CI [2.55, 20.88]), comorbid conditions (AOR=5.47, 95% CI [1.92, 15.62]), perceived stigma (AOR=8.34, 95% CI [3.49, 19.91]) were factors associated with anxiety. Approximately one-fourth of participants living with HIV/AIDS had anxiety. Being female, widowed, medium income, comorbid conditions, and perceived stigma were significantly associated with anxiety. This finding highlights the importance of mental health assessment, early detection and treatment of anxiety as an integral component of HIV/AIDS care.

The Implication of Gender on Artism: a Review

Purpose: The Agĩkũyũ people of Kenya are one of the largest people groups in Kenya. However, systematic repression of Gĩkũyũ culture led to many traditional elements being forgotten, put aside, if not lost completely. The overall objective of this study was to assess the thematic concerns addressed by Gikuyu secular popular artists on feminist and gender concern.&#x0D; Methodology: The paper used a desk study review methodology where relevant empirical literature was reviewed to identify main themes and to extract knowledge gaps.&#x0D; Findings: This study concluded that contemporary popular Gikuyu secular artists appropriate the language used in Gikuyu folklore to build their ideas on issues affecting women and men in society. So the linguistic styles of various epochs of literary traditions have proved to be valuable. The contextual analysis of various song-texts earmarked in this study indicates that literature is not only important as a form of entertainment but it is used for purging unpleasant feelings that come from starred relationship between men and women in love relationship, thus prompting of use of images that affect both genders..&#x0D; Unique Contribution to Theory and Practice: This study limited itself to three artists and a sample of eighteen songs in exploration of images of women emanating from gender relations espoused in members of the Gikuyu community of Kenya. There are other premiere and also upcoming artists who sing in Gikuyu language. The researcher recommends research on other artists and their song-texts to help shed more light on other aspects of images of women centering on feminism and gender issues in the contemporary society.&#x0D; Keywords: Thematic Concerns, Gikuyu, Secular Popular, Artists, Feminist and Gender Concern.

Literature Review on the Depression and Anxiety During the COVID-19 Quarantine Period

Covid-19 has been spreading throughout the world, having a significant impact on people’s lives. Many countries have used quarantine policies to effectively limit the spread of disease. However, each coin has two sides. This policy is expected to have an adverse effect on people’s psychological health because it isolates them at home. This paper aims to review studies on how this policy has caused depression and anxiety in various countries. Most countries conduct surveys to assess participants’ mental health. The findings show that depression and anxiety are positively related to COVID-19 and different demographic groups feel negative emotions to a varying degree during the quarantine period. At last, it is important to take into account how proper governmental actions, social assistance, and self-help techniques can assist people to cope with unpleasant feelings.

What is needed to promote physical activity? - comment on Hohberg et al.

In this short commentary, I provide reflections on the proposed future directions raised in the Target paper, including gathering more extensive data, applying a whole systems approach, the dual mode approach to theory, avoiding unpleasant feelings in physical activity, conceiving interventions that promote flexibility, and capitalising on technology to integrate and achieve these future directions.

What is needed to promote physical activity?

Despite the health-related benefits and published evidence-based physical activity (PA) guidelines, global PA levels have been stagnating since the 2000s, with around 80% of adolescents and 28% of adults not achieving the recommendations. As a result, a pandemic of physical inactivity is occurring, with far-reaching health consequences along with a substantial economic burden. This has led to the development of the Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018-2030 (GAPPA). GAPPA includes recommendations and 20 related evidence-based policy actions, which are adaptable across country contexts. The Irish PA Research Collaboration implemented strategies from the GAPPA at a national level and thus, conducted a systems map to identify gaps and strengths in PA policy. Using this approach, the Move for Life intervention was successfully developed, implemented, and evaluated. In line with a whole system approach, a better understanding of the individual is also required in the course of successfully promoting and maintaining PA. Affective-Reflective Theory of physical inactivity and exercise highlights the importance of learnt affective responses to exercise-related stimuli, and suggests that both automatic and controlled processes contribute to the adoption and maintenance of a physically active lifestyle. A method to shed light on motivational processes and people’s everyday behavior is longitudinal micro-temporal data. During the challenging situations such as the COVID-19, longitudinal micro-temporal data collected through mobile and wearable devices can capture processes and conditions that underlie flexible shifting between the automatic and controlled processes needed to maintain behavior. In summary, this paper compiles key concepts for PA promotion and maintenance, from which future directions follow: Gathering more extensive PA and sedentary behavior data; applying a whole system approach; considering new perspectives with a dual mode approach; avoiding unpleasant feelings during PA or exercise; conceiving interventions that promote flexibility; and capitalizing on technology to integrate and achieve these future directions.

The Protective Role of Perceived Social Support between Ethnic Identity and Adverse Mental Health Outcomes: The Case of Indigenous Adults in Taiwan

Abstract Ethnic identity is considered a psychocultural asset of indigenous. Yet, the search for own ethnic identity can induce unpleasant feelings, especially for indigenous peoples who have encountered colonisation and oppression. Using indigenous peoples in Taiwan, this study examined the protective effect of perceived social support on the associations between ethnic identity and the adverse mental health of anxiety and depression. Participants were self-identified indigenous peoples in Taiwan (n = 200; mean age = 29). A cross-sectional quantitative survey was adopted. Hypotheses were tested with structural equation modelling. Findings were: (1) low ethnic identity commitment was associated with high levels of depression and anxiety. (2) High ethnic identity exploration was associated with high levels of depression and anxiety. (3) Perceived social support was negatively associated with depression and anxiety. (4) Perceived social support protected participants with low ethnic identity commitment from developing depressive and anxiety. (5) Perceived social support protected participants with high ethnic identity of exploration from experiencing depressive symptoms, but not anxiety. Results highlighted the protective role of perceived social support in indigenous peoples with low levels of ethnic identity commitment and high ethnic identity exploration. Implications on using social support interventions to mobilise ethnic identity as a psychocultural asset were discussed.

Experiencing good results promotes positive feelings to high-intensity exercise among young adults: A qualitative study.

From a public health perspective, it is important to gain more insight into how people can be motivated to maintain effective exercise routines. It is a common belief that moderate-intensity exercise is more pleasant and enjoyable than high-intensity training. This study aims to provide insight into (1) participants' expectations and preferences for training intensity prior to training, (2) how longer-term participation affect participants' experience of endurance training with continuous moderate-intensity training and high-intensity interval training. A total of 22 participants (14 women and eight men) between the ages of 21-30 volunteered for participation. Participants were randomized and divided into two equal groups. A total of 17 participants, nine women and eight men, completed the study. One group did moderate-intensity longer-lasting training and the other did high-intensity interval training. All participants completed three training sessions per week for 8 weeks. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with each participant before and after completing the training intervention. Data was analyzed using thematic analysis. This study is a part of a larger study evaluating and comparing the effects on endurance capacity of high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity training. Physiological data are previously published. The results describe participants expectations prior to training, and how they experienced the actual training. The overall experience of training comprises several factors that work together. Both expectations and actual experiences (e.g., of physical pleasantness or unpleasantness, of positive or negative emotions, and of actual results from the training) contribute to the participants' overall experience of exercise. The major finding is that improved physical fitness was a stronger motivator than feelings of pleasantness. Experiencing good results seemed to downplay feelings of unpleasantness and reinforce positive feelings toward exercise. Lack of results reinforce negative feelings toward exercise. Participants reported high-intensity exercise as more unpleasant and exhaustive, but the interval training group were more satisfied and experienced the training as more motivating.

“Instant Happiness”: Smartphones as tools for everyday emotion regulation

Smartphone use has become an indispensable aspect of daily life for billions of people. Increasingly, researchers are examining the impact of smartphone use upon psychological well-being. However, little research has investigated how people deliberately use their smartphones to shape affective states; in other words, how smartphones are used as tools to support everyday emotion regulation. In this paper, we report a study that uses quantitative (experience sampling) and qualitative (semi-structured interview) methods to examine when and how people use smartphones to regulate emotions in everyday life, and the associated psychological consequences. Participants report spending a significant amount of time using their smartphones for emotion regulation, in particular to cope with unpleasant feelings such as boredom and stress. They report that smartphone-mediated emotion regulation is effective for attaining desired affective states. However, the perceived emotional benefits of smartphone emotion regulation do not emerge in lagged analyses predicting changes in momentary mood across a few hours, suggesting that emotional benefits may be transient or may reflect self-report biases. Participants discuss their perceptions of smartphone-supported emotion regulation in relation to smartphone addiction. This study provides evidence on how people use their smartphones for emotion regulation, and contributes to better understanding the complex relationship between smartphone use and emotional wellbeing.

A structural equation model analysis of the relationship between maternal fear of childbirth and expectant fathers' fear of childbirth: The mediating role of fathers' depression, anxiety, and stress.

Some fathers experience traumatic and unpleasant feelings such as fear of childbirth during pregnancy and childbirth. This study aimed to determine the mediating role of the expectant fathers' depression, anxiety, and stress in the relationship between maternal fear of childbirth and paternal fear of childbirth. In this cross-sectional study, using a two-stage sampling method, 502 expectant Iranian fathers and their wives in the second half of pregnancy were recruited. The participants completed self-administered questionnaires, including the fathers' fear of childbirth scale, the Wijma delivery expectancy/experience questionnaire, and the depression, anxiety, and stress scale-21. To analyze the data, structural equation modeling was employed in the Amos software version 24. Results indicated an acceptable fit of the model to the data. Maternal fear of childbirth was associated with paternal fear of childbirth, directly (β=0.23, p=.046) and indirectly through the mediator of paternal depression, anxiety, and stress (β=.17, p=.007). The expectant fathers' stress had a greater impact on their fear of childbirth. By considering the role of maternal fear of childbirth as well as expectant fathers' depression, anxiety, and stress on paternal fear of childbirth, it seems this study has some practical implications for improving the fathers' psychological well-being.

For all the Blessings of this Life

I argue, first, against the idea that Christian thanksgiving is about counting one’s blessings, or finding something specific in every circumstance which is intended by God for one’s own good. For we cannot know how God specifically intended to benefit us in most circumstances, and such knowledge is required for blessings-counting; and the New Testament models a different kind of thanksgiving which makes more sense in light of Christian theology. I also argue against the conception of Christian gratitude as a positive (pleasant-feeling) emotion, given the fallen nature of the world; instead, it must be a mixed emotion, combining a pleasant-feeling anticipatory joy over God’s action of world-salvation with unpleasant feelings such as dissatisfaction, restlessness, or yearning.

The Thematic Concerns Addressed by Gikuyu Secular Popular Artists on Feminist and Gender Concern: A Critical Literature Review

Purpose: The Agĩkũyũ people of Kenya are one of the largest people groups in Kenya. However, systematic repression of Gĩkũyũ culture led to many traditional elements being forgotten, put aside, if not lost completely. The overall objective of this study was to assess the thematic concerns addressed by Gikuyu secular popular artists on feminist and gender concern.&#x0D; Methodology: The paper used a desk study review methodology where relevant empirical literature was reviewed to identify main themes and to extract knowledge gaps.&#x0D; Findings: This study concluded that contemporary popular Gikuyu secular artists appropriate the language used in Gikuyu folklore to build their ideas on issues affecting women and men in society. So the linguistic styles of various epochs of literary traditions have proved to be valuable. The contextual analysis of various song-texts earmarked in this study indicates that literature is not only important as a form of entertainment but it is used for purging unpleasant feelings that come from starred relationship between men and women in love relationship, thus prompting of use of images that affect both genders..&#x0D; Unique Contribution to Theory and Practice: This study limited itself to three artists and a sample of eighteen songs in exploration of images of women emanating from gender relations espoused in members of the Gikuyu community of Kenya. There are other premiere and also upcoming artists who sing in Gikuyu language. The researcher recommends research on other artists and their song-texts to help shed more light on other aspects of images of women centering on feminism and gender issues in the contemporary society.

Flooding: The Mental, Social and Health Effects of Flood Disasters

The major flood that hit most of the states in Malaysia towards the end of 2021 had posed devastating effects on its victims. Among them are Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) students around the country, particularly those from UiTM Negeri Sembilan branch. The purpose of this study is to examine the mental, social and health effects experienced by the students due to the flood. This quantitative study used an online survey distributed to 46 students who were directly affected by the disaster. Data analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The results provide insight to the mental, social and health effects experienced by the students due to the flood. Most of the students were found to be affected mentally, harbouring anxiety that the flood would happen again. Physical exhaustion from having to clean and repair their homes was also highly noticeable. Although the victims expressed feelings of shock, unpleasantness, and worry following the devastating experience, they also felt that life must go on. They demonstrated the need for strong social support from the relevant parties to manage and prevent the effects of other natural disasters. To gain better country-wide comparisons, future research could use a larger sample of flood victims and engage those of different ages and family roles.

PENGARUH PIJAT AROMA TERAPI TERHADAP NYERI PERSALINAN DI BPS ZAHRA PUTRI PRATAMA, SST

Background: Labor pain as an unpleasant feeling that is an individual response that accompanies in the process of labor due to changes in physiological function of the birth canal and uterus. Pain is felt very subjective and individual. Objective: To determine the effect of aromatherapy massage using lavender oil to labor pain during the first phase of activation in primigravida mother at midwife Private Practice Zahra Putri Pratama, SST, midwives Private Practice Sudilah, Amd.Keb Metro City 2018. Method: Quantitative research type, This research design is pre experiment with One Group Pre-test approach - Post-test Design. The population in this study is the total of pregnant women aterem in April at BPS Zahra and Sudilah as many as 30 pregnant women. The sample in this study amounted to 24 people. Sampling in this research by accidental sampling. Data collection using observation sheets. The analysis used t-test dependent test statistic. Known average labor pain before given with average score value of labor pain frequency 6.62 With Severe Pain. Known Average Pain of labor after being given with an average score score of the frequency of labor pain 3.62 With Moderate Pain. There was an effect of lavender aromatherapy massage on the active stage I labor phase with P-Value 0.000 value. It is expected that midwives can apply to every patient who will give birth so that the labor pain that the mother can feel is reduced by massage using lavender aromatherapy.

The mental representation of occupational stereotypes is driven as much by their affective as by their semantic content

BackgroundStudies on person perception showed that stereotypes can be activated by presenting either characteristic traits of group members, or labels associated to these groups. However, it is not clear whether these pieces of semantic information activate negative and positive stereotypes directly, or via an indirect cognitive pathway leading through brain regions responsible for affective responses. Our main objective with this study was to disentangle the effects of semantic and affective contents. To this end, we intended to scrutinize whether the representation of occupational labels is independent of the emotions they evoke.MethodsParticipants (N = 73, M = 27.0, SD = 9.1, 31 men 42 women,) were asked to complete two tasks presented online. In the first task they had to arrange 20 occupational labels—randomly chosen from a pool of 60 items—in a two-dimensional space, moving the mouse pointer along two undefined axes. In a second task the axes’ names were defined a priori. Subjects were asked to arrange the labels according to valence, the extent to which the word evoked pleasant or unpleasant feelings, and arousal, the extent to which the word evoked excitement or calmness.ResultsBased on the final coordinates of the labels, two cluster analyses were carried out separately in the two tasks. The two clusters were compared with Fisher’s exact test, which revealed that the cluster structures overlap significantly.ConclusionsThe results suggest that the spontaneous categorization and the semantic representation of occupations rely largely on the affective state they evoke. We propose that affective content might have a primacy over detailed semantic information in many aspects of person perception, including social categorization.

Intensive Care Unit Caregivers Perception of Patient Discomfort: A Qualitative Study

BackgroundBeing hospitalized in an intensive care unit ICU often involves pain and discomfort. While pain is commonly alleviated with analgesics, discomfort is more difficult to diagnose and treat, thus potentially leading to incorrect analgesic administration. AimTo describe intensive care unit practitioners' perceptions of discomfort in the ICU, and their methods to discern between pain and non-pain discomfort. MethodsTwenty-five intensive care unit practitioners (7 doctors and 18 nurses) were interviewed from medical and general intensive care units at one institution in Jerusalem, Israel. Data collection was performed using semi-structured interviews. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed. Transcriptions were coded and categorized by two researchers independently. Content analysis identified common themes. ResultsTwo main discomfort themes were identified: unpleasant physical sensations and unpleasant psychologic feelings, with further subcategories. Physiologic and non-physiologic signs such as facial expression and motor activity helped to diagnose discomfort. Trial and error and cause and effect were used to differentiate pain from other sources of discomfort. ConclusionsPractitioners saw pain as a dominant source of discomfort. Treating overall discomfort should focus on improving the quality of the total intensive care unit experience. Strategies to diagnose non-pain discomfort and pain were similar. Differentiating pain from non-pain discomfort is essential in order to provide appropriate treatment for pain and non-pain-related discomfort.