Unpaid Work Research Articles

The role of time spent in unpaid domestic work on educational outcomes among adolescents and young adults: quantitative evidence from India

Higher education among youth is crucial for India’s socio-economic development. Despite policy efforts, challenges persist in retaining students beyond elementary school and improving inclusivity and education quality. Using the UDAYA dataset from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, we examined how unpaid domestic work affects educational outcomes. Findings from survey-adjusted logistic regression models showed that more time spent on unpaid domestic work was associated with greater likelihood of discontinuing education, absenteeism, and lesser likelihood of reading and arithmetic abilities among 12–23 years old, with some evidence of greater burden among girls. This relationship was attenuated by investing more time in academically productive work. There is a need for targeted educational interventions for disadvantaged youth and to emphasize the importance of expanding quality services to reduce the burden of unpaid domestic work on young people.

The true gender pay gap: Accounting for the distribution of unpaid labour

The true gender pay gap: Accounting for the distribution of unpaid labour

Methodological considerations for estimating indirect costs in children and adolescents with chronic conditions: a scoping review

BackgroundIn children and adolescents, the prevalence of chronic diseases, e.g., obesity, asthma, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), has increased in the last decades. These diseases have negative effects on patients and their families and pose a significant economic burden. Indirect costs related to caregivers’ lost workdays or children’s and adolescents’ missed education are likely to be high. However, there are no guidelines for measuring and valuing indirect costs in this population. Thus, this scoping review aims to examine methods in published articles, compare these approaches, and analyze benefits and shortcomings.MethodsThe systematic literature search was conducted in Medline, PsycINFO, Embase, NHS EED, and the HTA Database considering all articles from inception until 16 October 2024. Two researchers independently screened title, abstract, and full text. Cost-of-illness studies (COIs) reporting indirect costs for obesity, asthma, or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) in children and adolescents up to 24 years were included. Only studies published in English or German were considered. Methodological characteristics, measurement of indirect costs, cost components, data source, and costing methods were extracted.ResultsThe literature search revealed 45 studies. Thirty-two articles on asthma, eight on ADHD, and five on obesity were included. While all studies included absenteeism, only a few assessed and valued unpaid work (31.1%) or presenteeism (13.3%). Overall, 88.9% of the studies considered indirect costs for caregivers. Additionally, 51.1% considered productivity losses for children and adolescents, with 47.8% of these studies assigning a monetary value to these losses. The largest share of studies (53.3%) considered indirect costs by measuring and valuing caregivers’ lost work time.DiscussionIn conclusion, various methodologies were used to consider indirect costs for chronic diseases in children and adolescents, underlining the need for standardization. This scoping review presents methodologies for incorporating indirect costs in COIs and other types of economic evaluations, which focus on children and adolescents and adopt a societal perspective. These indirect costs include both paid and unpaid activities, as well as absenteeism and presenteeism, not only for caregivers but also for children and adolescents themselves.

‘Trans’forming identities: migrant workers as informal interpreters

ABSTRACT Construction sites are often multilingual spaces as high numbers of migrants are employed in the industry. Bilingual workers are used as informal interpreters to enable people to work together. However, little is known about who these workers are and why they take on this language work. This paper presents the stories of three informal interpreters who help facilitate communication on international construction projects. These stories, that come from a wider ethnographic research project, demonstrate how the individual’s identity is significant for why they take on this unpaid labour and how identity shapes how they perform it. This study suggests that some workers invest in their language skills, driven by their imagined communities as permanent or transnational migrants. Consequently, they are more engaged with the informal interpretation tasks than bilinguals who do not invest in their language skills and intend to return to their country of origin. This research suggests that formalising language work would help retain communication skills in the industry and may encourage investment in the informal interpreter function. This paper contributes to the theoretical discussion on investment and imagined communities by demonstrating how applying these terms generates new insights in research on migrants at work.

Buen Vivir and the dynamics of time in Indigenous women’s care work: between emancipation and alienation

In this article, we examine unpaid care work through the lens of subaltern women in Ecuador, highlighting their oppression and resistance. Based on decolonial feminist epistemology, we propose a new framework for analysing well-being in care work, inspired by Indigenous cosmologies. The study presents an analytical framework for Buen Vivir centred on care time and applies it to the Ecuadorian Amazon community of Tzawata. Using such methods as time diaries, interviews and a focus group, it explores when care time devoted to family, self-care, community and territory-nature is perceived as emancipatory and/or alienating. The findings reveal both the emancipatory and alienating dimensions of care and demonstrate the interconnectedness of these four times.

Deepening youth precarity: How the COVID‐19 pandemic impacted the livelihoods and mobility pathways of rural youth in South Sulawesi, Indonesia

AbstractIndonesia's young people renegotiate the constraints on rural‐based livelihood opportunities by participating in a diverse array of off‐farm activities, circular migration, and rural to urban mobility flows. While these strategies work to overcome the insecurity of farm‐based work, they can also introduce new forms of precarity, which are compounded when other major life events or crises occur. Drawing on a period of in‐depth qualitative research with two villages in South Sulawesi, we describe how young people were impacted by, and responded to, the mobility and trade restrictions on their daily livelihood activities during the fallout of the COVID‐19 pandemic. Travel restrictions and company layoffs forced some young people to return to their villages, where they faced limited employment prospects, while other young people remained isolated or idle in urban settings and unable to return home. Furthermore, fluctuating commodity prices and an absence of buyers for agricultural and seafood commodities led to even fewer opportunities in rural areas. The impacts of the pandemic were also gendered, as young women faced increased demands for unpaid care work, while also stepping into new markets (e.g., ginger powder) or retail work, to counter the loss of household incomes and return of male migrants. In the context of broad‐scale landscape change, declining rural opportunities, and precarious work contracts in urban areas and resource frontiers, our findings exemplify how the economic fallout of the COVID‐19 pandemic represents just one of the many crises that rural youth contend with on a daily basis.

Economic Burden of Sickle Cell Disease in Saudi Arabia

ObjectiveThis study aimed to determine the direct and indirect costs of sickle cell disease (SCD) in Saudi Arabia. MethodsData were collected from 217 participants aged ≥18 years in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia, using a prevalence-based cost-of-illness approach. The Institute for Medical Technology Assessment Medical Consumption Questionnaire and Institute for Medical Technology Assessment Productivity Cost Questionnaire were used to assess costs. A multistage process was used, encompassing patient data collection over 3 months, cost calculation from clinic visits and drug prices, and extrapolation for annual estimates. ResultsThe study revealed substantial societal costs of SCD, with an average per-patient cost of SAR181 899 (US$48 506), covering healthcare and productivity losses. Healthcare costs, including hospitalization, informal care, and medication, averaged SAR80 306 (US$21 415). In addition, productivity costs, including unpaid work and presenteeism, averaged SAR101 594 (US$27 092). Obtaining higher levels of education, such as a diploma and BSc degree or higher, has been found to significantly decrease the costs associated with SCD (P = .016, P = .001). Furthermore, when comparing different employment statuses, students (B = −0.301, P = .058) were found to have marginally lower SCD costs, suggesting that their expenses were lower than those of individuals in other employment categories. The predictive model used in this study explained 11.2% of the variation in costs. ConclusionOur study highlights a significant economic burden of SCD in Saudi Arabia and highlights the need for targeted strategies to alleviate financial challenges and improve patient well-being.

Policy Brief on: Gendered Differences Among the Informal Entrepreneurs Decision-Making Efficiency in Terms of Paid and Unpaid Workers for Formalization

Policy Brief on: Gendered Differences Among the Informal Entrepreneurs Decision-Making Efficiency in Terms of Paid and Unpaid Workers for Formalization

The Impact Of Women's Unpaid Work On Their Health And Well-Being: A TheoreticalAnalysis

The Impact Of Women's Unpaid Work On Their Health And Well-Being: A TheoreticalAnalysis

A NOVEL TIME USE APPROACH ON SUCCESSFUL AGING: RACIAL AND GENDER DISPARITIES IN DAILY PRODUCTIVE ENGAGEMENT

Abstract Background and Objectives Productive engagement (PE) represents a potential pathway toward successful aging (SA). Using time diary data, this study explored how U.S. older adults structure their daily lives in different productive roles, the impacts of these roles on one specific dimension of SA (self-rated health), and the extent to which these patterns differ by race and gender. Research Design and Methods We use data from the American Time Use Survey (n = 17,990) and sequence and cluster analyses to identify distinctive daily PE time-use patterns. Multivariable linear regression models were used to evaluate associations between these patterns and self-rated health, and the moderating roles of race and gender. Results Five PE clusters were identified: Low Degree of PE (29%), Moderate Unpaid Work & Light Social Participation (42%), Persistent Unpaid Work (12%), Persistent Paid Work (9%), and Persistent Social Participation (7%). White women were the most likely, while Black men were the least likely to have any PE. All PE clusters were positively associated with self-rated health, compared to “Low Degree of PE”. The strongest positive association was observed for “Persistent Paid Work,” especially for women. Racial differences were more prominent among women than men. The health benefits of PE were less pronounced among Black women than White women. Discussion and Implications The positive association between PE and self-rated health varies across race-gender groups. Future research should consider the persistent structural barriers that may prevent older adults with disadvantaged backgrounds, particularly Black women, from benefiting from PE and experiencing SA.

When the Burden Lifts: The Effect of School and Day Care Reopenings on Parents’ Life Satisfaction

AbstractThe availability of childcare services eases parents’ daily lives and research has shown that it positively affects well-being, especially for mothers. However, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted established childcare arrangements, with school and day care closures adding to parental burdens. Despite extensive discourse on the influence of these closures on parental well-being, few studies have empirically analysed the effects of the increase in childcare responsibilities associated with the closures on the well-being of parents. We seek to address this gap by examining the impact of school and day care reopenings on parental well-being. We expect that parents’ life satisfaction will increase when schools and day care facilities are reopened—and that this effect is particularly strong for mothers. Leveraging the variation in the time of reopenings across Germany’s federal states, we employ a difference-in-differences and a difference-in-difference-in-differences approach to assess changes in well-being. The research design accounts for state-level differences and potential confounding factors related to the pandemic. By using data from the German IAB-HOPP study, which offers timely measures of life satisfaction, we aim to quantify the effects of reopenings on parental well-being. Results show only a small and marginally positive effect of reopenings on average life satisfaction among parents. However, this is due to a strong and significant effect of reopenings on mothers’ life satisfaction and no significant effect for fathers. Our findings contribute to research on the division of unpaid labour and childcare and support the notion that public childcare provision is crucial, particularly for mothers’ life satisfaction.

Gender Inequality in Unpaid Domestic Work: A Comparative Analysis of Türkiye and OECD Countries

In 2024, the international community continues to face significant challenges in achieving gender equality despite the United Nations' "2030 Agenda," which includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals to address various global issues. A significant barrier to achieving development goals is widespread gender inequality. This inequality includes unpaid domestic work, such as cleaning, cooking, and childcare. The unequal distribution of household responsibilities perpetuates disparities in everyday life. Additionally, this imbalance in unpaid labor has severe financial and psychological impacts on women, affecting their overall well-being and economic empowerment. This article explores the stress of unpaid domestic work on working women, particularly concerning the challenges of achieving work-life balance while managing household responsibilities. The “third shift” concept is described in terms of these women's various roles. The first shift refers to their professional work, and the second shift includes domestic tasks like cleaning and childcare and may also incorporate elder care responsibilities. The third shift is characterized by the stress arising from the dual expectations of fulfilling professional duties and household chores. While the stress from unpaid domestic work is a global issue, its severity varies across different cultural contexts. Türkiye's cultural setting, for instance, differentiates it from traditional Middle Eastern countries and European welfare regimes in terms of the dynamics of unpaid domestic work. This article focuses on Türkiye's position in the unpaid domestic work domain and researches the contemporary gender inequality problems from working women's perspective.

Contribution of Women in Household Income— Based Perspective on Production

Analyses by family type based on age brackets are useful for structural analysis. We confirmed substantial wage-earning differences between the sexes, full- and part-timers, and large-work hour differences between the sexes. Unpaid work using opportunity cost is generally underestimated because of the Japanese seniority-based wage system. Then, we tried to make adjusted indices to account for wage-earnings and work-our differentials. We compare three kinds of income –market income, broad income (including unpaid work values) and adjusted income--in terms of the contribution of married women to family income. The disproportionate burden placed on women was highlighted.

Overcoming Barriers to Youth Economic Inclusion in Rural Morocco: A Case Study of Daït Aoua

In rural areas like the Daït Aoua territory, young people often face economic marginalization due to limited access to land, financial resources, and socio-cultural constraints. This study examines the economic inclusion of youth in this region and identifies key factors influencing their participation in local economies. Using a participatory territorial approach, we combined quantitative and qualitative data through surveys, interviews, and statistical analyses. The findings highlight significant spatial inequalities restricting youth to low-income, precarious roles in agricultural labor or unpaid family work, primarily due to delayed intergenerational land transfers. Despite some efforts toward income diversification through entrepreneurship and seasonal migration, these strategies are often hindered by a lack of capital and market limitations. The research underscores the need for targeted policies to address these structural barriers, promote equitable access to resources, and foster sustainable economic development. Understanding these dynamics is essential for creating opportunities that empower rural youth, enabling them to contribute meaningfully to their communities’ growth.

Challenging Gender Roles during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Case of Employed Palestinian-Arab Mothers in Israel

AbstractDuring the economic lockdown following the outbreak of COVID-19, the demand for unpaid work at home increased. Drawing on gender theory and the time availability explanation, this article explores the way changes in family and work arrangements altered the division of housework and care work in a highly gendered society; Palestinian-Arab dual-earner families in Israel. In-depth interviews with 28 Palestinian-Arab women were conducted to explore the social forces underlying the gendered aspects of family-work arrangements in Palestinian-Arab families in Israel during the pandemic. The findings provide evidence that both undoing and doing gender are observed, with the latter prevailing, leading to an intensification of gender inequalities. This suggests that changes in time availability do not guarantee an egalitarian division of unpaid work because cultural models are the main drivers, emphasizing the cultural context’s importance in understanding the way families arrange their household demands.

Propuesta de un Índice de vulnerabilidad del cuidado no remunerado (IVC) y su relación con la siniestralidad vial en Cali

Exogenous events to households and beyond the control of the women within them often result in women assuming more unpaid caregiving responsibilities, further restricting their time and possibilities to participate in the paid labor market. This article proposes an index to classify men and women in terms of their vulnerability to devote more hours to unpaid care work based on their individual and household characteristics, including the presence of motorcycle users. We associate a greater probability of road traffic accidents occurring when a household member is a motorcyclist, which creates and additional potential demand for caregiving within the household. Such external events disproportionately affect women, particularly those who already devote significant time to unpaid care work. In other words, a road accident involving a household member increases the vulnerability of women who already primary caregivers. Using data from the Gran Encuesta de Hogares for Cali, the index is estimated, showing that women are more vulnerable than men when a household member is affected by a road traffic accident.

But at What Cost? Healthcare Utilization of Canadian Carer-Employees.

Caregiving plays a crucial role in aging societies by supporting individuals with chronic illnesses, disabilities, or aging-related needs. The unpaid labour provided by caregivers diverts healthcare resources from the formal healthcare system; however, this incurs costs to the caregivers themselves in terms of declines in personal wellbeing. This study explores the relationship between caregiving and healthcare spending for two groups of caregivers: eldercare only and sandwiched. We found that physician visits were the most common resource used by caregivers, at a mean of 3.69 (SD = 4.01) visits over a 6-month period, excluding non-users of this service. This was followed by mental health services (M = 5.86, SD = 7.02), emergency room visits (M = 1.77, SD = 1.38), and hospital admissions (M = 3.61, SD = 8.53). There were no significant differences in healthcare utilization between eldercare and sandwiched caregivers. There were mixed results regarding characteristics associated with greater resource use; however, the hours of weekly caregiving were most consistently associated with greater healthcare utilization, indicating that healthcare use may increase with care burden.

Gender Division of Unpaid Work and Relationship Satisfaction: COVID‐19 as an Engine of Family Reshuffling in Italy

AbstractObjectiveWe examine variation and correlates of relationship satisfaction in the advanced stages of the pandemic in Italy, focusing on COVID‐19‐induced changes in the division of housework and childcare.BackgroundThe consequences of the pandemic were not limited solely to health and economics; couples' division of unpaid work and relationships were also affected. Evidence is scarce as to how families adapted to the “new normal” and the pandemic's long‐term effects on relationship satisfaction.MethodWe use novel population‐level data collected in September 2021 in Italy. Both descriptive and multivariable analyses are performed separately for men and women.ResultsIn a context of prevalent stability, our findings suggest that the pandemic is associated with substantial variations in family life: 37% of men and women living in heterosexual couples reported changes in their relationship satisfaction. For men and women living in couples wherein the pandemic fostered gender inequalities, relationship satisfaction declined. For partners living in couples in which the pandemic offered the opportunity for a new equilibrium with a more balanced division of unpaid work, relationship satisfaction improved.ConclusionsCouples have attempted to adapt to the new reality brought about by the pandemic, experiencing both gains and losses in relationship satisfaction. This work challenges the idea that all couples experienced negative adjustments in relationship satisfaction during the pandemic.ImplicationsMen's adjustments in unpaid work during the pandemic represents an important factor that strengthens relationships, which may set the stage for rethinking couples' role‐sets in a post‐COVID‐19 world.

Labor Outcomes After Employer‐Provided Training: Evidence from the Understanding Society Survey

ABSTRACTA simple two‐period model is developed to show that employer‐provided training might increase workers' wages and incentives to work more paid and unpaid hours. These predictions are then tested using the United Kingdom Understanding Society Survey data. The empirical analysis suggests that individuals with at least one employer‐provided training incident work more paid and unpaid overtime compared with individuals without employer‐provided training. Training has significant positive and permanent effects on wages and the odds of workers being in a managerial role after training. Additionally, those with employer‐provided training have higher odds of job satisfaction. The unpaid working hours and job satisfaction effects of job training are not long‐lasting.

Child Work in Developing Countries: Revisiting the Differences and Similarities Between Income-Generating and Care and Domestic Work

Child work is still widely prevalent in many countries: it refers to both income-generating activities and unpaid care and domestic activities. However, the existing literature and international statistical standards either aggregate these two forms of work or focus exclusively on income-generating work. In this paper, we show the differences and similarities in the prevalence and determinants of paid and unpaid child work using data from nationally representative household surveys for 34 developing countries, representing over 900 million people. We find that across countries, care and domestic work is more prevalent among children and adolescents aged five to 17 years, but less intensive than income-generating work. The age and sex of the child matters. Gender is diametrically associated to the two forms of work, while the likelihood of both increases with age. We observe variation in the sign and magnitude of caregiver and household-level coefficients between countries, however in most countries household composition factors proxying care supply have opposite effects on the two forms of child work, while household infrastructure affects both forms of work in the same direction. The findings call for distinctly measuring the two forms of child work and addressing their respective determinants through context-specific interventions.