College Athletic Programs Research Articles

Enhancing the Fan Experience at Live Sporting Events: The Case of Stadium Wi-Fi

While live sport event attendance remains a pervasive and progressing issue for university athletic programs, athletic directors should consider strategies to boost perceptions of stadium innovativeness. Professional sport leagues have pursued the adoption of Wi-Fi capabilities much more aggressively than their collegiate sport counterparts. This case introduces the Wi-Fi adoption issue for collegiate sport including a conversation surrounding the foundational technical aspects of Wi-Fi and cellular data for sport venues, the current status of Wi-Fi for collegiate athletics in comparison with professional leagues, and the benefits and drawbacks of Wi-Fi adoption. Case participants are asked to evaluate the merits of Wi-Fi adoption for a “Power Five” institution from the position of the athletic director. Participants will address adopting functional technology for the rise in college esports, Wi-Fi inclusion for indoor and outdoor venues, and comparative analyses among connected and disconnected stadiums.

Postsecondary pathways of Latinas/os: A review of student experiences in the community college

ABSTRACTThis paper examines previous literature to provide an overview of Latina/o students in higher education, with an emphasis on the community college and Latina/o student-athletes. While the majority of Latina/o students who pursue a public postsecondary education after high school begin in community college with aspirations to transfer, few transfer to four-year colleges. The paper discusses four key obstacles present in transfer pathways, which include part-time enrollment, financial challenges, academic preparation and invalidation, and a lack of access to transfer information. Recommendations include the need for more research that examines Latina/o experiences and the influence of college athletic programs and also the need for national community college athletic programs to collect and publish student-athlete data disaggregated by race, and postsecondary sector. Addressing the dearth in research and institutional data would support both researchers and educators to foster asset-based approaches that aim to increase the number of Latina/o student-athletes enrolling in and completing community college.

Adding a Collegiate Sport: Process, Revenue, and Title IX

While Title IX recently celebrated the 46th year since its passing, college athletic programs still fail to meet Title IX standards. This case study examines the expansion of a collegiate athletic ...

The NCAA Cartel and Antitrust Policy

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) was originally founded to protect student athletes from the brutality of college football. The NCAA has established a number of prominent athletic programs and achieved huge commercial success. In spite of this success, the NCAA has limited the compensation of student-athletes through collusive monopsonistic restraints. Ordinarily, these restraints would be vulnerable to antitrust attack, but the NCAA has enjoyed benign neglect by the U.S. Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission. The root of this is the Board of Regents [National Collegiate Athletic Association v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma, 468 U.S. 85 (1984)] decision, which requires rule-of-reason treatment of the NCAA’s restraints. The essential role of amateurism of student athletes is used to justify the NCAA’s cartel behavior. In this paper, we demonstrate that amateurism is a myth. We suggest that the NCAA will be unable to provide an evidentiary foundation for its claim that amateurism is crucial to the success of college athletic programs. In addition, we reject the possibility of an efficiency defense for the NCAA’s cartel behavior.

Influence Of Year In School On Health-related Quality Of Life Among Collegiate Athletes

Transitioning from high school to college can be a difficult experience; freshmen must adapt to life away from home, new responsibilities, and higher academic demands. For collegiate athletes, this transition also requires adjusting to more rigorous training and greater performance pressures. Together, these stressors may negatively impact health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among freshmen collegiate athletes. PURPOSE: To examine changes in HRQoL over a competitive season among freshmen and senior collegiate athletes. METHODS: 69 freshmen (age=18.2±0.47, male=56) and 23 senior (age=21.4±0.49, male=14) collegiate athletes at a large, Division I university completed the Short Form 12v2.0 Acute Recall (SF-12) prior to the start of the competitive season (PRE) and within 1 month following the end of the competitive season (POST). Participants included athletes who did not sustain an injury during the season or 6 months prior to PRE competing in football (freshman=36, senior=12), soccer (freshman=16, senior=3), and cross country (freshman=17, senior=8) over the 2013-2014 or 2014-2015 seasons. Raw scores were converted to norm-based scores via a linear z-score transformation. Changes (median (IQR)) in PRE to POST Mental Composite Score (MCS) and Physical Composite Score (PCS) were analyzed using Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. RESULTS: MCS significantly decreased (p<0.001) pre- to post-season among freshmen collegiate athletes (PRE=57.06 (54.79, 59.43), POST=54.67 (48.93, 57.06)). This decrease was observed in both males and females (p<0.001 and p=0.027, respectively). There was no change (p=0.341) in PCS among freshmen. Among senior collegiate athletes, MCS (PRE=55.34 (54.22, 58.26), POST=54.20 (49.50, 58.10)) and PCS (PRE=57.47 (54.39, 57.84), POST=56.71 (55.34, 58.40)) did not change significantly pre- to post-season (p=0.487 and p=0.889, respectively). CONCLUSION: Among freshmen collegiate athletes, mental aspects of HRQoL decreased over the course of the competitive season. Transitioning from high school to collegiate academics and athletics may produce high levels of psychological stress that can negatively impact HRQoL. University athletic programs should consider offering stress-management and counseling services to help incoming freshmen athletes adjust to college life.

Psychological and Physiological Markers of Stress in Concussed Athletes Across Recovery Milestones.

Sport-related concussions are associated with a range of physical, cognitive, and behavioral disturbances that are highly variable across individuals. Much remains unknown about the effects of sport concussion, and changes in markers of psychological and physiological stress over the recovery timeline. To examine psychological (mood, stress, sleep quality, and symptoms) and physiological (heart rate variability and salivary cortisol) measures in concussed athletes over clinical recovery milestones. University athletic program, sport medicine clinic, Canada. A sample of 52 interuniversity athletes (32 male and 20 female), 26 with concussion and 26 healthy controls. Case-control repeated measures study at 3 time points of the clinical recovery process. Measures were administered to a matched control sample of uninjured athletes as well. Physiological measures were heart rate variability and salivary cortisol; psychological measures were mood, perceived stress, and quality of sleep. Psychological measures were significantly worse for concussed athletes relative to controls at the symptomatic phase (acute injury), but significantly better at return-to-play (RTP). Multivariate analysis of heart rate variability identified main effects of sex and concussion, with reduced high-frequency heart rate variability for females and concussed athletes extending into the post-RTP phase. An interaction effect was also observed, showing the cardiac response of female athletes was more sensitive to concussion compared with males. Conversely, male athletes showed greater suppression of low-frequency heart rate variability associated with mood disturbances. This integrated study of psychological and physiological markers in concussed athletes confirmed the resolution of mood disturbances, symptoms, and sleep quality by RTP, but identified autonomic nervous system disturbances, as measured by depressed heart rate variability beyond RTP.

Cost spreading in college athletic spending in the United States: estimates and implications

ABSTRACTWith rising costs, mounting student debt, and many schools experiencing financial hardship, the higher education industry faces unwanted scrutiny from the popular media and political sector. College athletics too have come under close examination because of rising costs and internal subsidies. In this paper, we provide estimates of the per-student costs of college athletic programs for US colleges and universities by the number of undergraduate students enrolled, National Collegiate Athletic Association division, and whether the institution is public or private. These estimates find significant potential for cost spreading, so that costs per-student fall as the number of students rises.

An Exploratory Study of Athletic Training Student Communication

Context: Employers have reported that the ability to communicate is the greatest deficiency of new athletic training graduates. New graduates must be able to communicate effectively with a wide range of stakeholders to ensure the best health care of their patients. To date there have been no studies to determine which stakeholders the students are communicating with during clinical experiences. Objective: To investigate the opportunity to communicate with various stakeholders by students during their clinical experiences. Patients or Other Participants: Participants were 932 students (308 male, 624 female) from university athletic training programs. Data Collection and Analysis: The study used an online survey instrument that allowed students to recall which stakeholders they had the opportunity to communicate with during the prior week of their clinical experiences. Basic descriptive statistics were calculated to describe the study sample and a χ2 contingency table analysis was used to determine significance. The dependent variables were stakeholders with whom they communicated (coach/clinic director, athlete/patient, parent, administrator, peer/colleague, and other health care professional) and the independent variables were demographics (sex, athletic affiliation of host institution, state/private affiliation of host institution, entry-level degree, year in program, clinical rotation setting, and athletic affiliation of clinical rotation). Results: Year in program indicated a significant correlation with all of the dependent variables, with Cramer V ranging from 0.098 to 0.157. The highest significant correlation was found between clinical rotation setting and communication with parents (Cramer V = 0.418). Conclusions: As one would expect, as students matriculate and gain higher levels of maturity, they report more opportunities to communicate. Similarly, students in multisport secondary schools or lower-level collegiate clinical experiences report more opportunities to communicate.

Donor motivation in college sport: Does contribution level matter?

Collegiate sport in the United States not only provides educational opportunities to student athletes, but also offers excellent entertainment options to stakeholders of universities and their community. For the long-term sustainability of college athletic programs, financial support from individual donors is very important. Our purpose in this study was to identify and compare motives of low- and high-contribution donors to athletic programs. A sample of college sport donors (N = 484) completed the Scale of Athletic Donor Motivation, and the data were categorized into low- and high-contribution groups. The results of multigroup structural equation modeling indicated that tangible benefit was a salient predictor of giving intention among the low-contribution group, whereas socialization was significant for the high-contribution group. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Predicting Musculoskeletal Injury in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II Athletes From Asymmetries and Individual-Test Versus Composite Functional Movement Screen Scores.

Functional Movement Screen (FMS) scores of ≤14 have been used to predict injury in athletic populations. Movement asymmetries and poor-quality movement patterns in other functional tests have been shown to predict musculoskeletal injury (MSI). Therefore, movement asymmetry or poor-quality movement patterns on the FMS may have more utility in predicting MSI than the composite score. To determine if an asymmetry or score of 1 on an individual FMS test would predict MSI in collegiate athletes. Cohort study. National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II university athletic program. A total of 84 Division II rowers, volleyball players, and soccer players (men: n = 20, age = 20.4 ± 1.3 years, height = 1.77 ± 0.04 m, mass = 73.5 ± 4.8 kg; women: n = 64, age = 19.1 ± 1.2 years, height = 1.69 ± 0.09 m, mass = 64.8 ± 9.4 kg). The FMS was administered during preseason preparticipation examinations. Injury-incidence data were tracked for an academic year by each team's certified athletic trainer via computer software. An MSI was defined as physical damage to the body secondary to athletic activity or an event for which the athlete sought medical care, and resulted in modified training or required protective splitting or taping. Composite FMS scores were categorized as low (≤14) or high (>14). Pearson χ(2) analyses were used to determine if MSI could be predicted by the composite FMS score or an asymmetry or score of 1 on an individual FMS test (P < .05). Athletes with FMS scores of ≤14 were not more likely to sustain an injury than those with higher scores (relative risk = 0.68, 95% confidence interval = 0.39, 1.19; P = .15). However, athletes with an asymmetry or individual score of 1 were 2.73 times more likely to sustain an injury than those without (relative risk = 2.73, 95% confidence interval = 1.36, 5.4; P = .001). Asymmetry or a low FMS individual test score was a better predictor of MSI than the composite FMS score.

English

Public relations (PR) is becoming increasingly important in college athletics as the frequency and severity of controversy, legal issues, and crises heighten. With many stakeholders concerned about college athletic programs, coupled with an increased media presence and skyrocketing budgets, it is imperative that athletic programs communicate effectively and efficiently in times where clarity is needed. With that, the purpose of this research is to continue learning about the roles and perceptions of PR within an athletic department, as seen through the lens of ath-letic directors. Building on the work of (Ruihley & Fall, 2009), this research seeks to discover more about the following PR areas: tasks, stakeholder reach, benefits, and roles of PR staff. With mixed-method findings from NCAA Divisions I-A and I-AA athletic directors (n = 49), results indicate top responsibilities of the pri-mary PR staff member as maintaining media contacts and working with coaches and athletes. The top stakeholders indicated were student athletes, media, and the university. The top perceived role was problem-solving process facilitator. Lastly, the top indicated benefits of PR were identified in themes of communication and message, relationships, and strategic planning. The results of this research assist in understanding more about the fit of PR in college athletics.

Continuity of operations planning in college athletic programs: The case for incorporating Federal Emergency Management Guidelines.

College athletic departments have a responsibility to provide a safe environment for student-athletes; however, most colleges do not have a crisis management plan that includes procedures for displaced student-athletes or alternate facilities to perform athletic events. Continuity of operations planning ensures athletic programs are equipped to maintain essential functions during, or shortly after, a disruption of operations due to possible hazards. Previous studies have identified a lack of emergency preparedness and continuity planning in college athletic departments. The purpose of this article is to illustrate in detail one approach to disaster planning for college athletic departments, namely the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) continuity of operations framework. By adhering to FEMA guidelines and promoting a best practices model, athletic programs can effectively plan to address potential hazards, as well as protect the organization's brand, image, and financial sustainability after a crisis event.

Stages of psychological impact after diagnosis with serious or potentially lethal cardiac disease in young competitive athletes: A new model

ImportanceSudden cardiac death (SCD) in sports is a tragic event. Pre-participation cardiovascular screening is required before participation in high school and college athletic programs and is universally endorsed by major medical societies. The medical impact of a diagnosis may be life-saving; however, the detection of disease should not be the sole endpoint of care. Physicians have an obligation to attend to both the medical and psychological well-being of their patients. ObjectiveTo determine the psychological impact of being diagnosed with cardiac disease in young competitive athletes. DesignAthletes diagnosed with cardiac conditions were recruited to participate in a semi-structured interview, which was analyzed by sport psychology experts using qualitative research. Individuals shared reactions and experiences regarding diagnosis, lifestyle implications, coping strategies, major concerns, and overall impact on psychosocial functioning. SettingYoung competitive athletes from across the United States. Participants25 athletes (52% male, 80% Caucasian, median age 17.7) participated. Diagnoses included: 5 hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 8 Wolff Parkinson White, 4 long QT syndrome, 3 atrial septal defect, 2 supraventricular tachycardia, and 3 other. Main outcome measuresInterviews were analyzed using consensual qualitative research (CQR) to identify domains, categories, and core ideas. ResultsAthletes progressed through 4 stages of psychological impact including: 1) immediate reactions and challenge to athlete identity, 2) grief/coping, 3) adaptation, and 4) acceptance. Risk factors for increased psychological morbidity included: higher level of competition, permanent disqualification from sports, persistent reminders (e.g. daily medication, monitoring heart rate during activity), and unanticipated outcomes (e.g. failed procedures). Those undergoing simple corrective procedures came to terms with their diagnosis quickly with little impact on daily life. Few athletes described emotional support mechanisms provided by medical programs. Diagnosis often led to new goals such as mentoring or coaching. All athletes diagnosed through advanced cardiovascular screening stated they would repeat the process. Conclusions and relevanceAthletes diagnosed with cardiac disease represent an emotionally vulnerable population and experience 4 stages of psychological adjustment not previously described. This proposed model of psychological impact should be used to develop improved support mechanisms, awareness, and education to assist athletes diagnosed with serious or potentially lethal cardiac disease.

Minding the Terrazzo Gap between Athletes and Nonathletes

The tension between focusing on collegiate athletic or academic performance has persisted for decades. A recent study finds that recruited athletes in college athletic programs underperform academically, earning lower grades than predicted. It postulates that increased representativeness and integration efforts will enhance the academic value of college athletes’ experience. The U.S. Air Force Academy system presents a natural experiment of whether such efforts can affect student-athlete academic performance. In this setting, we find that student-athletes perform comparably to nonathletes after controlling for predicted academic performance.

NCAA Division I Coaches’ Perceptions and Preferred Use of Sport Psychology Services: A Qualitative Perspective

Although there appears to be greater acceptance and use of sport psychology (SP), fully integrating SP consultants and services into college athletic programs has yet to occur in most institutions. Decisions to initiate, continue, or terminate SP services are often made by coaches. Therefore, college coaches with access to services were interviewed to explore their beliefs and expectations about SP service use and how an SP consultant could work effectively with them and their athletes. Using consensual qualitative research methods, three domains in coaches’ perceptions of SP consultants were revealed: who they are, what they do, and how they do it. Findings illustrate the importance of being “on the same page” with coaches, developing self-reliant athletes, and making an impact while remaining in a supporting role.

Should the Playing Field Be Leveled? Funding Inequities among Division I Athletic Programs

Significant funding inequity exists within Division I athletic programs. The widening gap between heavily resourced university athletic programs and those less resourced is explored, explained, and then analyzed. Considerations are offered to help frame continued discussion and include regulating the number of ancillary personnel, creating a financial support bandwidth for conference membership, distributing media income, and scaling success differently.

Penn State Scandal Draws Attention to Child Sexual Abuse

Penn State Scandal Draws Attention to Child Sexual Abuse

To Tweet or Not to Tweet: Exploring Division I Athletic Departments’ Social-Media Policies

Via their social-media postings, student-athletes are increasingly creating public relations issues for college athletic programs. With social media’s emergence as a popular communication tool, exploring the messages student-athletes receive from their athletic departments about social-media use is warranted. This research examined social-media policies in student-athlete handbooks from 159 NCAA Division I schools. Using thematic and textual analytic procedures, analysis revealed that policies heavily emphasize content restrictions and external monitoring and frame social media as laden with risk. The results suggest that social-media policies should be more reflexive to identify both positive and negative outcomes for student-athletes. In addition, athletic departments must assertively monitor social-media trends to ensure that policies and training stay relevant.

395 Emergency Medical Response Systems in a University Athletic Program: A Descriptive Analysis

395 Emergency Medical Response Systems in a University Athletic Program: A Descriptive Analysis

(P2-41) Emergency Medical Response Systems in a University Athletic Program: A Descriptive Analysis

IntroductionUnpredictable environmental conditions, crowd dynamics, and a variety of medical emergencies create logistical and clinical obstacles when planning emergency medical response coverage for mass-gathering events. In a collaborative endeavor between a university athletics program and an academic division of Emergency Medicine, a stadium emergency medical response system was created consisting of hospital-based healthcare providers and pre-hospital healthcare providers.ObjectivesProvide descriptive statistics relevant to the nature and frequency of injury/illness, location of treatment within stadium confines, and resources used in the care of students, event staff, and spectators during collegiate football operations, to assist in future planning of mass-gathering events.MethodsA continuously updated, quality assurance database of de-identified, aggregate statistics was utilized to analyze trends regarding aspects of medical operations.ResultsDuring a 7-game home football season, there were a total of 399 patients encounters, including 1 cardiac arrest (0.25%), 12 “life-threatening” (3.01%), 121 urgent (30.33%), and 266 routine (66.67%). Total season attendance was 201,248 attendees (28,749/game and 19.83 patients encounters per 10,000 in attendance). Twenty-eight patients were transported (1.39 per 10,000), with eight resultant hospital admissions. Encounters varied by complaint, with skin (42%) comprising the largest number of encounters. Other categories included: (1) heat-related (23.5%); (2) allergic (15%); (3) neurologic (10.3%); (4) cardiopulmonary (3.5%); (5) gastrointestinal (3.6%); (6) musculoskeletal (5%); and (7) other (5%). Encounters increased noticeably when the heat index was greater than 80 °F– (29.4 vs. 10.5 per 10,000 attendees).ConclusionsThe collaborative effort by a multi-level provider model adequately covered presenting medical conditions. Consistent with previously literature, a strong correlation existed between heat index and number of patient encounters deemed urgent and routine. Interestingly, the number of “life-threatening” encounters did not appear to vary much with the heat index. Further studies of medical presentations and provider/resource utilization could provide for predictive modeling of future staffing and supply models.