Universal Norms Research Articles

Presumption of innocence – Awareness And Constitutional Provisions

Presumption of innocence that until now has been recognized as universal human rights norm, has been adopted and guaranteed in many national constitutions. Despite some limitations in comprehension, first 10 Amendments of the US Constitution is the first legal instrument that ever adopted this principal in the world. The history of constitution making in Vietnam also shows a complicated development in awareness on the principal, after 5 times of amendment, presumption of innocence was finally recognized in the Constitution.
 Keywords: Presumption of innocence, awareness, constitutional provisions.

Teaching bioethics at the Medical School, University of Ibadan, Nigeria: Prospects and challenges

Abstract Background Teaching bioethics (BE) is one way to contribute to reflecting if research on humans, health policies and interventions are legitimate. Nonetheless, BE and law have been a relatively new subjects in medical schools in Nigeria, with increasing interest only since the late 1990s following the Pfizer Trovan study. Literature in this emerging field mostly refers to experiences from high-income countries (HIC), literature on low-and middle-income countries (LMIC) is scarce. Objectives This presentation describes over 10 years’ experience of teaching BE in the residency program, to doctors and within a Masters in BE Program of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. The paper discusses the content, skills, teaching approach and tools employed in these activities. Challenges of the teaching process are identified and future teaching strategies suggested. Results The crop of students are largely unemployed young graduates, health professionals, ethics committee members. They come from Southern Nigeria; there is a weak representation from the Northern states of Nigeria. Based on students and lecturer evaluation reports, we can report that it is important to teach BE in LMICs such as Nigeria. A country that has experienced many ethically challenging and even evil activities in medicine and medical research coupled with a radically changing value system. Teaching universal norms of BE in a country with a high level of illiteracy and cultural differences where religion plays a major role in defining what is right, wrong or appropriate remains a challenge. Conclusions For BE training to be impactful and result in systemic and structural changes in health policy and education in Nigeria, the government must invest in proper institutionalization of research and clinical ethics in curricula in Nigeria. Key messages Efforts need to be increased in Nigeria and other LMICs to teach BE. HIC institutions could offer guidance by becoming partners organizing ethics training.

In Search of a Legal Solution to the Weaponisation of Space: A Russian Perspective

This article is primarily focused on the diplomatic efforts aimed at preventing the weaponisation of outer space, or development of weapon systems designed to destroy targets, either orbital or terrestrial, or from the ground in outer space. Along with that, a number of anti-satellite weapon projects that both the United States (US) and the Soviet Union/Russia have been developing since the 1950s are briefly described as examples of their military competition in space. Highlighted is the work that has been done within the United Nations (UN) context to develop a corpus of universal principles and norms governing international exploration of outer space as the common heritage of humankind, free from the use of force. The author also highlights the positive role that arms control treaties have been playing in preventing deployment of weapons in space. Particular emphasis is given to the potential consequences for global security should attack weapons appear in outer space, and to the importance of a further targeted effort by the international community to work out additional regulations strengthening space security. In this regard, draft treaties on the prevention of weapons in space introduced by Russia and China, and the European Union’s International Code of conduct for Space are emphasised.

Interpretative Pros Hen Pluralism: from Computer-Mediated Colonization to a Pluralistic Intercultural Digital Ethics

Intercultural Digital Ethics (IDE) faces the central challenge of how to develop a global IDE that can endorse and defend some set of (quasi-) universal ethical norms, principles, frameworks, etc. alongside sustaining local, culturally variable identities, traditions, practices, norms, and so on. I explicate interpretive pros hen (focal or “towards one”) ethical pluralism (EP(ph)) emerging in the late 1990s and into the twenty-first century in response to this general problem and its correlates, including conflicts generated by “computer-mediated colonization” that imposed homogenous values, communication styles, and so on upon “target” peoples and cultures via ICTs as embedding these values in their very design. I contrast different kinds of ethical pluralisms as structural apparatus for understanding what differences may mean and allow for, as these emerged in the 1990s forwards with EP(ph). As interwoven with phronēsis, a form of reflective judgment and virtue, EP(ph) more radically preserves irreducible differences and so fosters positive engagements across deep cultural differences. I show how EP(ph) emerged in the context of empirical research on “Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication” (CATaC) beginning in 1998, and then in specific applications within Internet Research Ethics (IRE) beginning in 2000. I summarize its main characteristics and trace how it has further been taken up in ICE, IRE, Intercultural Information Ethics, and virtue ethics more broadly. I respond to important criticisms and objections, arguing that EP(ph) thus stands as an important component for a contemporary IDE that seeks an ethical cosmopolitanism in place of computer-mediated colonization.

Twenty-first century perspectives on the Biological Weapon Convention: Continued relevance or toothless paper tiger

ABSTRACT While the secretary-general of the United Nations has questioned whether the COVID-19 pandemic has exposed a gap in global defenses against bioterrorism that a nefarious group may seek to exploit, the reality is that the pandemic has only underscored the folly of biological warfare, a strategy which relies on weapons – viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens – that would indiscriminately wreak havoc on the attacked and the attacker alike. Indeed, most countries in the world are part of the Biological Weapons Convention, the international treaty that – while lacking an enforcement mechanism – has successfully bolstered the near universal norms against the use of biological weapons.

Doğu Avrupa'nın Din Merkezli Göçmen Politikaları

Göç, tarihin başlangıcından bu yana, insanoğlunun en özgün karakteristiği ve küreselleşmenin ilk adımı olmuştur. Günümüzde küreselleşme ve göç birbirini besleyip büyütmeye devam ederken, devletler de her geçen gün sayıları hızla artan göçmenlerle nasıl baş edebileceklerinin yollarını aramaktadırlar. Bir yandan evrensel ve bölgesel normlar ve değerler tartışılırken, bir yandan da spesifik ve marjinal tedbirler düşünülmekte. Hıristiyan Roma topraklarının mirasçısı olan Avrupa’nın “kimlik” ve “öteki” algısı, çoğunlukla Müslüman kimliğine sahip Doğudan gelen işgallere karşı duyulan korku üzerine inşa edilmiştir. Hal böyle olunca, Suriye iç savaşının tetiklemiş olduğu mülteci krizi, İslam’a duyulan korkuyu tetiklemiş oldu. Doğu Avrupa ülkelerinin din merkezli mülteci politikalarının arka planı ile dinin, kültürün ve siyasetin neden bu denli iç içe geçmiş olduğunun cevabı Avrupa’nın tarihi ve kültürel bağlarında yatmaktadır.

LANGUAGE MEMORY - ETHNIC-COGNITIVE PHENOMENON, HISTORIOGRAPHIC CONCEPT (BASED ON A. KAIDAR'S WORKS)

A feature of A. Kaydar’s research is the ability to analyze language from the perspective of high human values, as an instrument of anthropological cognition and ethnic memory. Studying the “world of language” through the principles of “human studies”, “social studies”, and “natural studies”, the scientist emphasizes the importance and necessity of using “valuable sources”. As a result, it is believed that the basis for solving problems of glottogenesis and ethnogenesis is the linguistic foundation, the product of language memory, a set of knowledge and experience. Based on historical, comparative, and extralinguistic factors, the linguist skillfully combined national and cultural values with universal axiological norms. In the scientist’s perception, linguistic units are considered as a logical continuation from the particular to the general, as a result of ethnogenesis and the global philosophy of being.

Hegel: El derecho como Wirklichkeit y Sittlichkeit


 
 
 Hegel elaboró una rigurosa filosofía del derecho fundada en la superación del formalismo jurídico y el subjetivismo de las preferencias individuales. Su filo- sofía no es positivista, pero tampoco historicista o sociológica. Se afirma como actividad científica porque se sustenta en la lógica y se demuestra como realidad efectiva. La filosofía del derecho expone la libertad a lo largo de tres momentos: el derecho abstracto, la moralidad y la eticidad. En el derecho abstracto se afirma la libertad formal del individuo, su personalidad jurídica: declaro que soy libre y tengo “derecho”; sólo es efectivo cuando se expone y se prueba exteriormente. El derecho demanda el reconocimiento de la comunidad: un dejar hacer (laissez faire) y el otorgamiento de una prestación (prerrogativa) por parte del Estado. Para Hegel, la eticidad es el orden que permite la relación entre individuos libres en la esfera social, económica o jurídica. Por lo tanto, el derecho es realmente efectivo en la eticidad. En la constitución política y en las leyes, las personas exteriorizan la racionalidad práctica: la perfecta unión de las normas universales de la cultura y sus costumbres. Sólo así, el ciudadano se reconoce a sí mismo y a los demás en lo universal de las leyes.
 
 

Estimating the accuracy of word-initial consonant clusters in child speech data

Children have difficulty in producing consonant clusters in adult-like manner. A widely used measure for the proximity of consonant clusters is the proportion of accurately produced clusters to intended clusters (PClC). Recently, Babatsouli and Sotiropoulos proposed the measure for cluster proximity (MCP) which differentiates inaccurate clusters in developmental stages. The purpose here is two-fold: to highlight the differences between the two measures for individual children in typical or atypical speech development, and to examine the correlation between the two measures for speech data from several children. The data comprise 33 speech samples each with 18 word-initial clusters from 17 children: 1 monolingual male at age 2 years and six months; 1 bilingual female at ages 2 years and seven months, three years, and three years and five months; and 15 other children in atypical development whose speech data was collected before and after therapy. The results show that the two measures are strongly and significantly correlated across children, cumulatively for all word-initial clusters and classes of clusters, cumulatively for all children. Therefore, a universal norm for MCP can be predicted linearly from a universal norm for PClC, with a high coefficient of determination.

Characterizing Hard Core Cartels Under Article 101 TFEU

The prohibition of cartels embodies arguably the sole universal norm of global competition law. Yet a precise understanding of what constitutes a cartel remains elusive, a problem that is exacerbated in the context of Article 101 Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union by the Commission’s administrative enforcement procedures and the expansive approach to the “by object” category of restraints. This article aims to provide a more precise characterization of the hard core cartel concept as reflected in EU competition case law and practice and to explore why such conduct continues to constitute the “supreme evil” of contemporary antitrust enforcement.

Ciências cognitivas e neuroética

Resumo O artigo parte da discussão entre a visão representacional computacional da cognição contraposta ao enfoque enativo da ciência cognitiva, que defende que o conhecimento é fruto da afetação do corpo pelo ambiente. Discute as consequências dessa visão enativa para a compreensão da neuroética, entendida não como conjunto de parâmetros éticos para as experiências científicas nas neurociências, mas como compreensão neuronal científica do agir moral. A explicação neuronal da ética parte de neuroimagens como expressões de emoção, mas reduzir a moralidade às emoções é discutível, pois juízos emocionais, baseados na proximidade afetiva, destoam de normas éticas de base universal. Outro ponto crítico dessa visão é o artificialismo de suas experimentações, devido ao esquecimento do mundo cotidiano de afetações do corpo, enfoque trazido pelo enativismo da ciência cognitiva.

Implications of Easter Island Protests – Breach of Rapa Nui Rights by Chile in the Context of National, American and Universal Legal Systems

The aim of the article is to present, as well as to analyse legally, the situation of the indigenous population of Rapa Nui in the territory of Chile. Rapa Nui, officially called Easter Island, is an island in the Pacific Ocean basin. It was illegally annexed by Chile in 1888; since then, violations of the rights of native peoples have been observed. The legal-political situation of Rapa Nui (also the name for the inhabitants of Easter Island) is challenging due to the Chilean government’s actions towards them. Instances of human rights breaches can be seen in, inter alia, the failure to respect the right to self-determination as well as the right to environmental protection. The article will also consider breaches of very basic human rights by the Chilean government such as the rights to freedom of speech and assembly. The article firstly examines the actual situation in which the indigenous people of Rapa Nui find themselves. Secondly, such analysis will consider the legal situation, in light of both regional (i.e. American) and universal norms. These legal frameworks provide an explicit legal basis that can be used to improve the problematic position of Rapa Nui. The American regional norms, however, are still at the stage of creation and execution. There are a series of judgments from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, which de jure can help the people of Rapa Nui in regaining their freedoms, primarily their right to protest.

Applying a principle of explicability to AI research in Africa: should we do it?

Developing and implementing artificial intelligence (AI) systems in an ethical manner faces several challenges specific to the kind of technology at hand, including ensuring that decision-making systems making use of machine learning are just, fair, and intelligible, and are aligned with our human values. Given that values vary across cultures, an additional ethical challenge is to ensure that these AI systems are not developed according to some unquestioned but questionable assumption of universal norms but are in fact compatible with the societies in which they operate. This is particularly pertinent for AI research and implementation across Africa, a ground where AI systems are and will be used but also a place with a history of imposition of outside values. In this paper, we thus critically examine one proposal for ensuring that decision-making systems are just, fair, and intelligible—that we adopt a principle of explicability to generate specific recommendations—to assess whether the principle should be adopted in an African research context. We argue that a principle of explicability not only can contribute to responsible and thoughtful development of AI that is sensitive to African interests and values, but can also advance tackling some of the computational challenges in machine learning research. In this way, the motivation for ensuring that a machine learning-based system is just, fair, and intelligible is not only to meet ethical requirements, but also to make effective progress in the field itself.

COVID-19 and quarantine orders: A practical approach.

Quarantine is a very effective method for containing the spread of highly infectious diseases in large populations during a pandemic, but it is only effective if properly implemented. The co-operation and compliance of people entering quarantine are critical to its success. However, owing to the isolating and social distancing nature of quarantine, it often leads to extreme economic hardship and shortages in basic needs such as food, medicine, water and communication - and to the curtailment of certain universal social norms such as attending a parent's funeral. To escape these hardships, people often refuse to enter voluntary quarantine, or breach quarantine rules. In these circumstances, health authorities are obliged to act in the best interests of the public and obtain court orders to force some people into quarantine. In further extreme circumstances, when a national lockdown is ordered, non-compliance with quarantine measures may result in arrests and penalties. The scope of this article is limited to the period prior to and following such a lockdown, during which quarantine may still be vital for the containment of COVID-19. Because a quarantine order will deprive an individual of his or her freedom, this must be carefully balanced with the public interest. This article explains the legal and ethical considerations of this balancing exercise and provides practical guidance for obtaining quarantine orders.

New Face of International Law From Western to Global Construct

The modern international law, not only imitates, but the substance is truly the European values and traditions. The European nations produce the norm of international law with a clear objective is to divide the world into "selves" (European nations) and "others" (non-European nations). This is exacerbated by European colonialism and imperialism, which allow their values and traditions to become hegemonic norms that ultimately produce the paradigm of "otherness" in international law. Non-European nations are "others", which are considered only as users of the European values. The “otherness” paradigm in international law is resulted from the universal claim of the European values. It is a hegemonic technique. The paper argues that International law should move from the “otherness” to the “togetherness” paradigm. This requires a new approach in the making of international norms, from claim to consent, and now it has led to the global values approach. The paradigm of togetherness requires an inter-civilizational approach, and universality is the keyword. Universal norms should not be put on an abstract level; they need transformation into the particular idioms. Universality is not a matter of claim; it is a respect and acceptance of cultures and values of other nations. International law requires a paradigm shift, from Western to Global Construct.

The Notion of Disability and Related Research Terminology: Discussion Points

The history of civilization is also the history of incapacitation and the use of new artificial appliances and practices gradually introduced at every stage of humanity’s development in order to help people survive regardless of the laws of natural selection. This article considers the terminology related to the sphere of disability and bodily deviation through a historical perspective while also focusing on forms of representation and their comprehension by society. The author demonstrates that the term “deviation” serves to classify people with disabilities and forms of their representation. People with a bodily deviation can be easily portrayed from the point of view of the visual, with artistic attention to them reaching its climax between the seventeenth and the early nineteenth centuries. In such works, disabled people try to overcome the stigma and start being perceived like everyone else. Starting with the early nineteenth century, works of fiction refer to deviant sense organs. Only in the twentieth century did writers start focusing on deviant psyches and minds, which were previously associated with deviations in social behaviour. The author maintains that the terminology of disability relies on the existing universal bodily norm describing it and its deviations. A person with a bodily deviation is perceived as a disabled one when they are perceived as ‘the other’. When compared with a ‘healthy’ person, a deviant is taken as a disabled one; when considered separately, a deviant is a person with alternative possibilities. From this perspective, disability is part of a paradigm of otherness (age, gender, and nationality).

ЮРИДИЧНІ ДЕФЕКТИ У ПРАВОВОМУ ЗАБЕЗПЕЧЕННІ РЕАЛІЗАЦІЇ ПРАВА НА СВОБОДУ ОБ’ЄДНАННЯ У ГРОМАДСЬКІ ОРГАНІЗАЦІЇ В УКРАЇНІ

У статті автор досліджує питання дефектності права на свободу об’єднання громадян в Україні. Метою є ана-ліз нормативно-правового регулювання права фізичних осіб на свободу об’єднання у громадські організації на предмет виявлення наявних колізій та прогалин і вироблення відповідних рекомендацій, спрямованих на нейтралізацію цих негативних чинників.
 Для початку автором було розкрито поняття «юридичний дефект» та обрано класифікацію, на підставі якої здійснювався подальший аналіз. Критерієм класифікації було взято особливості прояву юридичних дефектів у механізмі правового регулювання, в залежності від його елементів.
 Першим видом юридичних дефектів були юридичні дефекти правових норм, а саме: логіко-структурні та техніко-юридичні. Автор загострив увагу на недосконалості категоріального (термінологічного) апарату та необхідності приведення його до єдиних стандартів, адже навіть норми Конституції та Закону «про громадські об’єднання» суперечать у цьому плані. Також автор звернув увагу на надмірну конкретизацію та невиправдану деталізацію деяких норм, що регулюють досліджувані правовідносини.
 До другого виду юридичних дефектів можна віднести дефекти джерел права. Автор знаходить певні суперечності між приписами нормативно-правових актів. Автор дійшов висновку, що потребують перегляну як норми Конституції, так і норми законів, що регулюють питання реалізації права на об’єднання.
 Третім видом юридичних дефектів у залежності від елементів механізму правового регулювання є юридичні дефекти правовідносин. Так, зокрема, багато колізійних питань щодо суб’єктного складу досліджуваних правовідносин. По-перше, невирішеним є питання на-лежності деяких конституційних прав громадським об’єднанням. По-друге, існують суперечності між поло-женнями нормативно-правових актів щодо того, хто має право на свободу об’єднання у громадські організації.
 Зроблено узагальнюючі висновки про те, що нагальним є приведення чинного законодавства до єдиних стандартів та норм, у тому числі міжнародних, по відношенню до яких Україна взяла зобов’язання, а також наголошено на необхідності перегляду усіх нормативно-правових актів, що стосуються реалізації права приватних осіб на об’єднання на предмет дублювань, розбіжностей, нераціонального розміщення норм.

KONSEP DAN SISTEM NILAI DALAM PERSFEKTIF AGAMA-AGAMA BESAR DI DUNIA

<p><em>Value as a driving force in life, which gives meaning and validation to one's actions. Values held in both intellectual and emotional terms. The combination of these two dimensions determines something that is worth functioning in life. If in giving meaning and validation to an action, it is not small, while not more intellectual, the combination is called the norm or principle. Norms or principles such as faith, justice, brotherhood and others become values that are agreed upon in the patterns of behavior and patterns of thinking of a group, while universal norms are determined, while special and comparable values for each group. Value is the essence that is attached to something that is very important for human life, especially regarding the goodness and acts of kindness of a thing, the value of the meaning of the traits or things that are important or useful for welfare. Value is something abstract, ideal, value is not a concrete thing, not a fact, it is not only a matter of right and wrong that demands empirical proof, it needs social appreciation that is desired, liked, and disliked.</em></p><p><strong>Keywords</strong><strong>: </strong><em>Concepts, Values, Great Religions In The World.</em><em></em></p>

Universality, spectrality, proximity: The cinematic faces of Europe's other

Abstract For a number of scholars, the crisis of European identity is a result of the asymmetry between Europe's universal normative claims and its particular ethnic, cultural and racial contexts. This asymmetry is epitomized by the EU's failure to ratify its legally binding constitution. For others, the same asymmetry constitutes the very condition of being a European. Those envision Europeanness beyond its regulative idea as the ethical injunction of a promise to 'the other'. This article probes the validity of each of these arguments by juxtaposing two groups of films. Gianfraco Rosi's Fire at Sea (2016) and Ai Weiwei's Human Flow (2017) remain committed to the idea of human rights as a universal norm, an idea whose most prominent advocate is Jürgen Habermas. As an alternative to this view, Guido Hendrikx's Stranger in Paradise (2016) and Christian Petzold's Transit (2018) are taken to demonstrate what Jacques Derrida describes as 'hospitality' and 'spectrality'. Based on this analysis, the paper finds both models inadequate to hold together the irreconcilable modalities of the political and the ethical. To address this deficiency, it revisits Levinas' account of 'justice beyond the face' to propose an extension of the ethical view of Europeanness into the spheres of international law and public institutions.

Abiotic Ecosystems?

Arthur Tansley first defined the term ecosystem in his seminal work “Use and Abuse of Vegetational Concepts,” as an improved way of viewing the relationships between plants and their physical environments. However, his definition, while widely influential, privileges the living components over nonliving components of ecosystems, and has thus been unable to fully overcome the biocentrism of early plant ecologists. Moreover, the binary between life and nonlife is untenable, and serves only as a marker of the underlying biocentric values of a researcher. Drawing from Donna Haraway’s argument for situated knowledges, one can critically examine the biocentrism implicit in much of ecology (and conservation), and reconsider our definition of ecosystem in order to highlight our devaluation of the nonliving, and expand our normative universe.