United Nations Office On Drugs And Crime Research Articles

Development and Validation of a Method for Detecting and Quantifying Mitragynine in Kratom Samples Using HPLC-PDA

Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth) has been identified as a New Psychoactive Substance (NPS) by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and included in the list of prohibited ingredients in food supplements and traditional medicine by Indonesian FDA. Therefore, a rapid, easy, and reliable analytical method is necessary to detect and quantify this plant and its products. This study developed a method for the detection and quantification of kratom products based on a unique compound, mitragynine, as a biomarker. A previous survey of determining mitragynine in Kratom using GC-MS, LC-MS/MS, UPLC, and HPLC-PDA. Previously, the HPLC-PDA method used a C8 column. Yet, for efficiency, it is also necessary to develop a test method using a C18 column. Analysis was performed using an HPLC - PDA system with Waters Atlantis T3-C18 (250 x 4.6 mm, 5 µm) column. The mobile phase comprises acetonitrile and formic acid 0.05%, pH 5.0 (75:25 v/v), delivered at a 1.0 mL/min flow rate. Detection was carried out at a wavelength of 225 nm. The analytical method was validated with test parameters of selectivity, system suitability, accuracy, precision, linearity, detection limit, and quantification limit. The validation study demonstrated an excellent linear concentration range of 1.96 - 6.01 µg/mL with a correlation coefficient of 0.9996; the detection limit is 0.14 µg/mL, while the limit of quantification is 0.45 µg/mL—accuracy method of 98.88 - 101.44% and a bias of 0.27%. The percent relative standard deviation for six independent assay determinations was 0.67%, and the intermediate precision was 1.56% on two days. The mitragynine amounts in these materials ranged from 6.01 to 6.31 mg/g of dried leaf material. Based on the research results, it can be concluded that the method developed provides quick, simple, reliable, accurate, and valid, and has an advantage over existing methods in terms of simplicity of sample preparation, short analysis time, and cost-effectiveness compared to GCMS and LCMS/MS and can be applied for future analysis in Kratom samples.

Investigating the Interrelationship between the Desire for a Cohesive Community and Opioid Abuse: A Neuropsychological Study of Demon Copperhead

Abstract Foregrounding the increasing global crisis of opioids as the “leading cause of deaths in fatal overdoses,” the World Drug Report 2023, published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), mentioned that in 2021 more than 80,000 people died due to opioid overdose in the United States of America. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the national public health protection agency in the United States, has reported that “the predicted number of drug overdose deaths showed an increase of 0.5% from the 12 months ending in December 2021 to the 12 months ending in December 2022, from 109,179 to 179,680” (“Provisional Data”). Although the trajectory of opioid use disorders (OUDs) has affected different sociodemographic groups in the country since its first wave in the 1990s, teenagers in poverty-stricken rural areas are more vulnerable to such addiction (Keyes et al.). Poor parental guidance, impoverishment, troubled childhoods, detrimental familial structure, scarce opportunities, and accessibility to opioids are often considered to be the primary risk factors for unprivileged teenagers to develop a psychic reliance on opioids for engendering a perpetual sense of contentment. According to the incentive sensitization theory, the persistent desire to transcend physical and psychical limitations for a sense of relief, triggered by chronic drug misuse, often evokes a sense of “wanting” or incentive salience, a compulsive inclination towards drug-associated stimuli (Berridge and Robinson, “Drug Addiction” 22). This intense desire of “wanting” often generates a perpetual sensitization of the mesolimbic systems in the brain which is also activated by mental representations of drug-associated cues (Robinson and Berridge 3139). Focusing on drug-induced changes in the brain such as hypersensitization and neuroadaptation, this study analyzes Barbara Kingsolver’s Demon Copperhead, a modern reimagining of David Copperfield by Charles Dickens. The selected text addresses primarily some pertinent socio-political crises, such as the poor foster care system, poverty, and the engrossing opioid endemic in Southern Appalachia. However, this study attempts to analyze the precarious state of some characters, who become addicted to opioids seeking recognition from peer groups and perpetual psychic stability, in the selected text from a neuropsychological perspective.

Global and Regional Estimates of Female Intimate Partner and Family-Related Homicide

Based on national data collected by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) from 105 countries and territories, this study estimates that nearly 49,000 women and girls worldwide were killed by their intimate partners or other family members in 2022. Using annual data from the Americas and Europe as well as monthly data from 14 countries in various regions, the study also shows that regional and national trends in female intimate partner/family-related homicide were highly heterogeneous during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. UNODC produces global and regional estimates of female intimate partner and family-related homicide to shed light on the magnitude of the problem and to inform advocacy, policies, and programs to end such killings.

Legal Framework and International Cooperation in Combatting Human Trafficking

Human trafficking is a pervasive global issue violating fundamental human rights and affecting millions annually across borders. Efforts to combat it involve intricate legal frameworks and international collaboration mechanisms. This research delves into the effectiveness and hurdles of these approaches. It begins with an overview of national and international legal structures. Various instruments, treaties, and protocols criminalizing trafficking and protecting victims are explored, with emphasis on the United Nation's Palermo Protocol. Furthermore, the study scrutinizes mechanisms fostering international cooperation. This includes bilateral and multilateral agreements, legal assistance, extradition treaties, and information-sharing networks. Organizations like United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and International Organization for Migration (IOM) play crucial roles in facilitating cooperation and providing support. However, despite progress, challenges persist. Inconsistent implementation of laws, insufficient resources for enforcement and victim support, jurisdictional complexities, and corruption hinder effectiveness. Addressing these issues demands sustained commitment, resource allocation, and cross-border collaboration to protect the vulnerable and hold perpetrators accountable.

UPAYA KOLABORATIF THE UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME (UNODC) DAN PEMERINTAH INDONESIA DALAM MENANGGULANGI HIV/AIDS DI INDONESIA

This article aims to describe efforts to deal with HIV/AIDS in Indonesia through collaboration between The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the Indonesian Government in the 2017-2020 Indonesia Country Program. The method used in this research is a qualitative method and literature study as a data collection technique. Meanwhile, international organization theory and the concept of Human Security are used as theoretical foundations. The results of this research indicate that efforts to control HIV/AIDS in Indonesia by the Indonesian Government in collaboration with UNODC are the right steps, considering that HIV/AIDS is a disease that has an impact on human health security. UNODC assists Indonesia in achieving its goals and interests through the Indonesia Country Program by designing a systematic work plan to discuss and contribute to the creation of a National Action Plan (RAN) to overcome the spread of HIV/AIDS among prisoners and convicts in Indonesia

Conceptual basis of gun policy

Gun violence has reignited academic and public debate about support for restrictive gun policies, the need for stronger gun control, and countering school shooting. The article analyzes the national and foreign guns policies. Unlike most comparative legal studies on the problems of guns control, built on comparison and identification of features, the analysis of differences, this study was aimed at identifying the essential grounds, the nature of state control relations over the circulation of guns. We aimed to synthesise evidence identifying effective interventions and policies that influence the social determinants of gun violence. The paper widely uses the literature review method in combination with classical methods of studying legal phenomena, which made it possible to identify Legal model of gunpolicies that exist in the world, determine the legal means of implementing the guns policy, its principles. We systematically searched legal databases (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “Traveler’s Guide to the Firearm Laws of the Fifty States — Gun Laws for the 50 States”, databases of Federal Ministry of Justice Germany, database provisioning legislative activity of Russia). The study revealed gaps in the Russian guns policy and the organization of guns control and supervisory activities of law enforcement agencies, including the problem of restricting access to guns for certain categories of persons — members of extremist and terrorist organizations, as well as persons who have committed crimes who have received a criminal procedure the status of a suspect or accused. We conclude that a promising strategy for reducing gun violence is to make guns a legal liability to criminals, a goal that can be furthered through a variety of both regulatory and law-enforcement tactics. Changes to the legislation on guns and criminal procedure legislation aimed at strengthening guns control are proposed.

Word Analysis Regarding the Terminology of Addiction in Adolescents

The World Drug Report 2018, published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), states that as many as 275 million people in the world, or 5.6% of the world’s population aged 15 to 64 years, have used drugs. Based on the data obtained and the latest research, the age group most prone to drug exposure and abuse are those between 15 and 35 years old, commonly known as the millennial generation. If adolescents are a group that is susceptible to substance abuse, then promotive interventions must be provided at this age to prevent usage that often results in addiction. Meanwhile, social phenomena related to the public understanding of drug abuse or addictive behavior have changed. These changes are caused by various factors and have resulted in evolving definitions in today’s society, including among adolescents. Adolescents, as a group of people who have the developmental task of building relationships with peers, tend to accept or reject groups that are considered different, which can lead to stigmatization among teenagers. Understanding how teenagers view NAPZA/NARKOBA/substance abuse is important. The data obtained from this study consisted of 27 words, which were analyzed as emergent themes and two pairs of equivalences, serving as experimental material through a neurofeedback approach.
 Keywords: addiction, substance abuse, stigma, neurofeedback

FAMILY AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF CLIENTS IN DRUG ABUSE IN THE REHABILITATION CENTER OF NATIONAL NARCOTIC BOARD

Family and social lives are the several factors that lead someone to be involved in drug abuse, specifically in children and adults. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) noted that in 2021 the number of drug users worldwide was around 275 million in the past year. The National Narcotics Board or Badan Nasional Narkotik (BNN) Baddoka recorded that the number of clients undergoing rehabilitation in 2021 was 256, with 218 at severe levels, 36 at moderate levels, and 2 at mild levels, then 188 clients had completed rehabilitation. This study aimed to describe family and social environment factors to clients on drug abuse. This was descriptive research in that number of samples was 75 respondents selected by purposive sampling. The results revealed that most of the clients had inappropriate family and social environments. The former clients are encouraged to maintain proper relationships with their family and social life to avoid the potential opportunity for drug abuse. Furthermore, families are suggested to support and deliver more attention to clients who had run the rehabilitation process.

Sex- and Gender-Specific Drug Abuse Dynamics: The Need for Tailored Therapeutic Approaches.

Sex and gender have been gaining ever greater attention due to their associated risks, dynamics, patterns and protective factors underlying substance abuse and addiction. Such differentiations and the clarification of complexities thereof take on even greater relevance in light of drug abuse scope worldwide. According to the 2022 World Drug Report released by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), in 2020 an estimated 284 million people worldwide aged 15-64 had used a drug within the last 12 months. The authors have set out to shed a light on determinants and contributing factors of drug abuse based on sex and gender and outline policy and medicolegal remarks aimed at delineating sex- and gender-based approaches towards drug abuse therapeutic interventions that are both therapeutically and ethically/legally viable and grounded in an evidence-based set of standards. Neurobiological data suggest that estrogen may facilitate drug taking by interacting with reward- and stress-related systems. In animal research, the administration of estrogen increases drug taking and facilitates the acquisition, escalation, and reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior. From a medicolegal perspective, it is of utmost importance to take into account the whole picture constituting each patient profile, which certainly includes gender factors and contributors, when outlining a therapeutic approach. Failure to do so could lead to negligence-based malpractice allegations, in light of the scientific findings representing best practices with which clinicians need to comply when caring for SUD patients.

The Early Warning System Effectiveness of the Maritime Security Agency of the Republic of Indonesia (Bakamla RI) in the Prevention of Drug Invention through the Sea Lane

<p>The Republic of Indonesia Maritime Security Agency (Bakamla RI) was formed based on the mandate of Article 59 Paragraph 3 of Law Number 32 of 2014 concerning Maritime Affairs. Bakamla RI has implemented an early warning system to ensure security and safety in Indonesian waters and jurisdiction. The Bakamla RI Early Warning System (EWS), known as a choke point for maritime security and safety, has already been built and spread throughout Indonesian waters. However, in reality, drug smuggling by sea is still common. Drug smuggling by sea is still dominant today. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) revealed that 80% of drug trafficking is carried out by sea. Narcotics transactions in the middle of the sea are very safe transactions, this is due to very weak supervision in the middle of the sea by officers. The purpose of this study is to analyze the mechanism and effectiveness of an early-stage warning system in preventing drug smuggling by sea. This study uses a qualitative descriptive method with interview data collection techniques. Research shows that the Early Warning System Series produces ship detection and assistance data that can be processed into ship anomaly information. The application of the Bakamla RI early warning system to prevent drug smuggling by sea has not been effective. The difficulty of realizing information between agencies and the weak synergy in exchanging information are the main obstacles to the efficiency of the early warning system. Therefore, it is recommended to increase the capability of the Bakamla RI Early Warning System by integrating the Command and Control Center (Puskodal) or Control Center (Pusdal) of related agencies, as well as equipping it with monitoring equipment that integrates the Early Warning System.</p>

International framework for criminal analysis

AbstractAim: Renewing the Hungarian crime analysis methodology is necessary to set up a new framework for it. However, this is inconceivable without knowing the methodology used by the most important international actors in criminal analysis.Methodology: The study presents and compares the methodologies of crime analysis of Europol, UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), IACA (International Association of Crime Analysts) and U.K. law enforcement.Findings: The development of the integrated methodology of criminal analysis in Hungary dates back to 1997. However, only in the last few years have attempts been made to renew this methodology in line with the requirements of the modern age. As the previous framework is no longer suitable for the reception of new analytical methods, like risk analysis, network analysis, hor-spot analysis or even the reinterpreted crime pattern analysis, the first step in the renewal effort is to develop a new, flexible framework. Creating the new framework is expedient to examine the methodology used by countries and international organizations leading in the processing and analysis of criminal data and theoretical support of analysis.Value: As each of the examined methodologies is adapted to the current tasks of the given organization or law enforcement body, they cannot be utilized in their entirety, but in some elements and their structure, they serve as a basis for the development of the national framework of criminal analysis.

The role of faith in parenting; considerations when implementing family skills interventions with families affected by armed conflict or displacement.

Religious beliefs and practices are fundamental to shaping family functioning in many countries and cultures around the world. They are often associated with a strong influence on parenting, and a potential resource for parents. While nurturing caregiving can act as a protective shield, buffering against the negative effects on children's well-being, armed conflict and displacement often compromises parental well-being and positive parenting practices. Making interventions available to families affected by conflict and displacement that help to develop the quality of parenting is now seen as an important component in the care of war-affected children, causing a rise in family skills interventions for humanitarian contexts. Accordingly, there are certain considerations that need to be taken to achieve cultural sensitivity and acceptability, that account for the influence of religion. Here we share our United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) experience in the case of implementing "Strong Families," a UNODC family skills programme implemented in over 30 countries, providing key recommendations. (1) Appreciate and account for common religious beliefs and practices in your target populations; (2) ensure programme material acceptability and sensitivity; (3) avoid initiation of direct discussions, on religious beliefs or practices; and (4) facilitator need to be trained and prepared to respond to questions about faith. Though these considerations are presented considering the implementation of family skills programmes, they are also relevant to a range of other programming in which direct social (or other) contact is made with families in challenged contexts, aiming to reduce any perceived gaps between trainers and the families they are working with, and give families a sense that their religious beliefs, values, and priorities are understood.

Machine learning model for the classification of municipalities by illicit crops in Colombia from 2010 to 2020

Introduction— The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) classifies Colombia as one of the countries where drug trafficking and crime threaten the security, peace and development opportunities of its citizens. Objective— This article presents the application of the unsupervised K-means classification algorithm to categorize municipalities with coca cultivation presence in Colombia. Methodology- The CRISP-DM methodology was used for data mining, and the PCA (Principal Component Analysis) algorithm was used for the correlation of variables. Results— Multiple sources of information were used, such as: the number of hectares of coca per municipality, seizures, laboratories destroyed, manual eradication and fumigation, monitored by national institutions, in order to make crosses with socioeconomic and performance variables of the municipalities with coca crops in the period from 2010 to 2020. Based on the classification, the scenarios of each category were analyzed to find scenarios that allow elucidating the dynamics of the territories suffering from this scourge. Conclusions— It was found that the behavior of coca-producing municipalities responds mainly to 4 groups. It was also found that the municipality of Tumaco in Nariño does not fit into any category since it exceeds the production with respect to the other municipalities.

Does illicit amphetamine seizures quantity associated with amphetamine use disorder related admissions in Saudi Arabia?

BackgroundIllicit amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) trafficking activities have increased substantially in Saudi Arabia over the last 10 years. In the period 2013–2017 Saudi Arabia seized the largest quantities of amphetamine at the global level. The current study examines whether the increased quantity of ATS seizures has an impact on amphetamine use disorder admissions.MethodThis is an ecological study combining two datasets, the first dataset was obtained from United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), and the Al-Amal Hospital Electronic Health Record System in the city of Dammam, Eastern region of Saudi Arabia from 2005 to 2018. The annual incidence of patients diagnosed with amphetamine use was the dependent variable. The independent variable was the annual reported count of seized quantities of ATS in Saudi Arabia. We used a random intercept Negative Binomial model to predict the yearly count of amphetamine use disorder admission rates.ResultsA total of 910 amphetamine disorder admission patients in Al-Amal rehabilitation and addiction center, and the quantity equivalent to 200 tons of ATS was seized from 2005 to 2018. The amphetamine disorder admission rate has increased from 1.33% in 2005 to 18.27% in 2018. For each one-unit increase in the amphetamine confiscated quantities, the amphetamine use disorder admission rate increased by 49 to 88%.ConclusionThe current study found that reported amphetamine seized quantities were significantly and positively associated with the increase of amphetamine use disorder-related admission rates. In 2018, both ATS seized quantities and admission rates significantly increased, nearly doubling from the previous year. Rigorous, and multidisciplinary interventional studies to evaluate factors associated with increasing abuse of ATS should be a priority for policymakers and researchers in Saudi.

Measuring Corruption as a Threat to International Security: An Emerging Indicator for Enhancement of Global Corruption Governance

The conceptual changes to international security after the end of the Cold War, and particularly those following the al-Qaeda attacks of 2001, clarified the symbiotic relationship between corruption and international security: Corruption destroys the social political environment required to create human security and to ensure safety from terrorist attacks, and national borders increasingly fail to restrain its negative consequences. To achieve human security though policy intervention in domestic affairs, global corruption governance relies on numerical indicators that measure corruption. By evaluating states through public comparison, indicators pressure states to improve their domestic institutions and structures to align them with the international legal regime against corruption. However, existing indicators, including the Corruption Perceptions Index and Control of Corruption, have serious deficiencies that precipitate strong criticism from scholars and practitioners. This article suggests that the objective numerical measurement of “Corruption (0703),” one of the statistical measurements under the International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) of United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), is an emerging indicator that can enhance global corruption governance by supplementing or substituting existing indicators which are subjective numerical measurement of corruption. The significance of corruption as a threat to international security, not simply to international business, thus increases the absolute gains of Corruption (0703). Therefore, it is vital that states utilize and comply with Corruption (0703). For this recommendation to be persuasive, however, the following three questions must be answered. Does Corruption (0703) have the qualities necessary to exert pressure on states by negatively impacting their power in a way that existing indicators cannot? Can states, which are both the subjects and objects of the Corruption (0703) measurement, realistically comply with it, and will they do so? How can the problem of state cheating to achieve a more favorable score be overcome? To answer these questions, this article contemplates distinct characteristics of corruption between domestic criminal law and international agreements, and ultimately adopts the approach of neo-liberals, who prioritize absolute gain over relative gain and are thus optimistic about the potential for international organization and cooperation in implementing and enforcing this metric. In addition, this article often refers to the Republic of Korea as a case study because it has reached the most advanced stage of ICCS implementation.

Substance Use Disorder in Punjab: Patterns, Challenges, and Implications

Various government agencies like the National Drug Dependence Treatment and Rehabilitation Programme (NDDTRO) in India and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) have reported that Punjab has a significant problem with substance abuse. This means that many people in Punjab struggle with addiction to drugs and alcohol. To better understand this issue, the present study aims to find out which substances are most commonly used in Punjab, what physical, social, and psychological effects these substances have on people, and why people in Punjab use these substances in the first place. Total a number of 52 participants who shared their insights on the issues mentioned earlier. The results revealed that substance use has a significant impact on a person’s personal life, career, and financial well-being. Additionally, a majority of participants identified ‘peer pressure’ as one of the primary reasons for initially turning to substance use. The study contributes to the existing knowledge in this direction by shedding light on the specific substances and reasons for their use in a region that is known for its high prevalence.

Detection & identification of hazardous narcotics and new psychoactive substances using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR).

According to the latest World Drug Report, released by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), drug use is up 30% over the past decade and there are more drugs, and more types of drugs, than ever. Herein we use Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) for the rapid ID of narcotics in a range of concentrations - from pure forms (as it is likely to be smuggled & transported) to street forms, often mixed with conventional cutting agents. Using FTIR, 75% of "street sample" narcotics were rapidly identified, and the effects of cutting agents on identification (ID) were also investigated. The limit of detection of MDMA was assessed, with a correct ID shown from 25% w/v. Concentration was correlated with Hit Quality Index, showing the capability of FTIR use in concentration estimation.

Middle Point, End of the Road or Just the Beginning? Anticorruption Efforts, Failures and Promises at the United Nations

Although first noted discussions at the United Nations (UN) level about corruption are reaching their 50th anniversary, the core of the UN activity against corruption has taken place in the last quarter of a century. The 2021 special debate at the UN General Assembly was an opportunity for the institution to pause and reflect about its role over this period in the international fight against corruption. It also presented a (partially missed) opportunity for the UN to renew its commitment and reconsider its approach for the next 25 years. This article provides first an overview of the UN activity against corruption, which relies on two main pillars. On the one hand, the well-known United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC) in force since 2005, which has received remarkable academic attention and is an example of success in terms of ratifications. On the other hand, the insertion in Sustainable Development Goal 16 of an anticorruption objective (16.5) and its related indicators, which is not as widely acknowledged by anticorruption activists and scholars but serves as a recognition of the importance of tackling corruption in the development context. The article offers a historical contextualisation of both initiatives, analyses this dual approach and explores the impact of these initiatives in the global and domestic contexts. Based on previous research from the author, it highlights their joint value as a true global statement against corruption and an authoritative recognition of its damaging effects and their importance for peace, security, development, human rights and human wellbeing. The article presents, nevertheless, a critical analysis showing their shortcomings and the lack of a real effect of these instruments in overcoming or at least reducing corruption and kleptocracy at the international level. It proposes three different avenues within the UN mandate and fields of action that could guide newer initiatives. First, it explores the possibility of individual (non-criminal) ‘smart’ sanctions, modelled on the counter-terrorism regime driven by national governments, but assisted by United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Second, the article considers how the economic and trade dimension of the UN, especially at the regional economic commissions level, could be reinvigorated with a mandate to tackle corruption through economic instruments. Third, it analyses how an optional protocol to the UNCAC could give more ‘teeth’ to the Convention. The general conclusion is that the UN, within its existing powers, has significant potential to take anticorruption initiatives a step further as the current ones have almost exhausted their shelf life.

Evaluation of decarboxylation efficiency of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid and cannabidiolic acid by UNODC method.

Decarboxylation of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9-THCA) to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) by heating is a common method for determining total Δ9-THC. In the manual for cannabis identification and analysis, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) proposed decarboxylation conditions. Although the manual's primary analytical target is Δ9-THC, some reports also quantified cannabidiol (CBD). The authors assessed the efficiency of decarboxylation of Δ9-THCA and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), a carboxylated form of CBD, under four decarboxylation conditions, including the UNODC condition. Δ9-THCA and CBDA were heated in 2-mL glass vials at 150°C for 12min after the following treatment: condition A involves the addition of ethanol without capping, condition B involves non addition of solvent without capping, condition C involves non addition of solvent with capping, and condition D (UNODC condition) involves the addition of 0.5mg/mL tribenzylamine (TBA) in ethanol without capping. The residue after heating was dissolved in methanol and then analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The production of Δ9-THC and CBD was low (≤ 10.1%) under conditions A and B. Under condition C, Δ9-THC production was increased (53.4%), but CBD production was hardly improved (11.7%). Under condition D, Δ9-THC and CBD production dramatically increased to 83.2 and 71.0%, respectively. These findings indicated that TBA improved the production of Δ9-THC and CBD from their carboxylated forms; however, even in the presence of TBA, their production did not reach 100%. Forensic toxicologists should understand the effectiveness and limitations of decarboxylation under the UNODC condition.

Over time prevalence of illicit substance use in Saudi Arabia

Illicit substance use disorder is a chronic brain disease. This disease can lead to many negative health outcomes or even death. Recently, Saudi Arabia’s rank was among the top of the world in amphetamine seizures. Drug smuggling as well as conflicts and wars in the surrounding countries might play a role in that. The current paper aimed to review the over time prevalence of illicit substance use in Saudi Arabia. To achieve that, we searched through different databases. We also looked over the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reports. The current review found a few articles talking about illicit substance use prevalence in Saudi Arabia; much of that work was about Khat substance. In the end, we concluded that there is a considerable need for further research in this field. Keywords: Khat, amphetamine, cannabis, drug abuse, illicit substance abuse