Unique Buildings Research Articles

Bio-mimicry in architecture: An explorative review of innovative solution toward sustainable buildings

Bio-mimicry is the imitation of the way nature solves problems. Architects and designers can utilize the ways nature follows to solve and address design problems. This science has helped humans in all life’s aspects, especially in the field of architecture. From the dawn of history, people constructed special buildings to suit their needs. At first, the building process was hard, and the structure was simple and rigid with rough details and they kept repeating the same form. Therefore, architects have been searching for answers for their building complexes, and they found that nature was the best source of solutions. The structures then took different forms, were decorated with deep and graceful ornaments, the walls became thinner, more openings were constructed and the buildings became more beautiful and had more dignity. So, nature imitation has become the best approach for architects to deliver bold ideas to their surroundings. We can still see how the ancient unique buildings are standing still until this time, as in some Egyptian temples, Greek and Roman columns, and Byzantine ornaments. Imitation of nature in buildings is either through aesthetic, structural, or sustainability aspects. In this research, we are exploring the potential of Bio-mimicry to support sustainability, using a number of case studies throughout history, classifying and analyzing them.

Деструктивные явления при некачественном прогреве монолитных железобетонных конструкций

The growth of the number of the building floors inevitably leads to an increase in the construction period and, consequently, to the need for monolithic reinforced concrete structures in winter. Electric heating by means of heating cables is the most widespread method of concrete curing in winter conditions in the Central region of Russia. The risk of defects in monolithic reinforced concrete structures increases under certain conditions. This risk is related to various types of technological process faults. The main types of monolithic structures defects have been repeatedly described. But there are practically no papers describing the types and causes of defects associated with failures during electric heating of concrete. The author has developed a block diagram of the main defects, and the main reasons for their occurrence have been identified. The paper summarizes the experience gained during two winter periods at the construction sites of Moscow city belonging to unique buildings and structures. Operational and quality inspection of the construction was performed. The author identified groups of defect causes: cable installation and installation errors; heating regime errors. The author identified specific types of defects for each group, and also gave recommendations on their avoidance in the future. The paper provides a ‘check list’ of parameters that must be checked during electric heating with heating cables. The checklist shows the control points that minimize the risk of defects.

COMPUTER MODELLING OF AERODYNAMIC FLOW OF A COMPLEX OF UNIQUE BUILDINGS

The way large-sized buildings interact with wind flows cannot be analyzed when considering such objects in isolation from their environment. The paper proposes a model representing such objects from the point of view of hydrogasodynamics as a system of bodies united by aerodynamic medium. A quantitative and qualitative assessment of the mutual influence of system objects on aerodynamic characteristics at different locations was performed. The results of computer modeling of the aerodynamic characteristics of two unique buildings in an isolated mode, as well as for various mutual positions in the system, using the methods of a computational experiment based on the numerical solution of non-stationary systems of Navier-Stokes differential equations are presented. The accuracy of the results obtained was monitored by conducting a model experiment in a wind tunnel. For the qualitative assessment of the mutual influence of objects on each other, the characteristics of the vector of the wind pressure force equalizing vector on each of the objects and the value of the equalizing moment at the base of the object most sensitive to its influence were determined. In this way, a quantitative assessment has been made that allows us to judge the redistribution of wind loads and the static characteristics of the system. On the basis of changes in their values the conclusion about the way the objects interact with wind flows depending on their initial geometric parameters and mutual location within the system was given.

RECONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS AS A METHOD OF PRESERVING HISTORICAL BUILDINGS

Reconstruction of buildings is an important method of preserving historic buildings, as it allows to combine the preservation of architectural and historical values with the needs of modern life. The preservation of historical and cultural heritage is a key strategic direction for the development of modern cities and a way of self-identification of peoples. Historic buildings, regardless of their functional, constructive and aesthetic qualities, allow us to pass on to future generations the material evidence of the past, the spirit of the era, and the unique atmosphere of cities. Modern urban planning policy, despite its offensive nature, provides for the maximum preservation of historic buildings and structures, their reconstruction, modernisation or renovation. The only way to avoid oblivion and destruction is to make full use of them. In today's world, countries' desire for cultural self-identification and interest in authentic architectural surroundings contributes to the preservation of not only unique buildings and structures listed in the registers of architectural and historical monuments, but also high-quality "background architecture" - second-plan architecture, inconspicuous, less valuable, but which is essential for the formation of the "image of the city". It is this type of building that most often becomes the object of active reconstruction. The purpose of the article is to explore the significance of the impact of historical buildings on the formation of the urban environment, to study the experience of reconstruction of historical buildings, and to show the possibilities of reconstruction as a method of preserving cultural heritage. For this purpose, the article analyses the practical principles of foreign experience in reconstruction, renovation, adaptation and modernisation of buildings and structures for various purposes - residential, public, industrial, and engineering. The article provides examples of completed projects for the reconstruction of residential (East Germany, Amsterdam, Bordeaux, Norfolk, Copenhagen, Paris), public (Berlin, Brisbane, London, Hanover, Hong Kong, Nuremberg, Venice) and industrial buildings (Barcelona, Riga, MontjuХre, Leshno, Villars de Dalt, Kyiv, Brooklyn, Roskilde, Brussels, Eindhoven, Lviv) and engineering structures (Bankside, Toronto, Dorset, Utrecht, London) that show a variety of architectural and planning techniques of reconstruction. The study of foreign and domestic experience in the reconstruction of buildings and structures expands the possibilities for the effective use of historic buildings, improves the methods of volumetric and spatial organisation of development, and prolongs the life of historic buildings.

ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИЯ СТАЛЬНЫХ ПОКРЫТИЙ УНИКАЛЬНЫХ СООРУЖЕНИЙ.

Currently, employees of the Laboratory for Standardization, Reconstruction and Monitoring of Unique Buildings and Structures of the Department of Metal Structures of the V.A. Kucherenko Central Research Institute are preparing to print the standard of the organization STO 36554501-073-2023 “Technical operation of steel structures for coatings of unique buildings and Structures” in accordance with Federal Law No. 162-FZ dated June 29, 2015 “On Standardization in the Russian Federation Federation”. This SRT 36554501-073-2023 is compiled taking into account the requirements of Federal Laws: dated December 27, 2002 No. 184-FZ “On Technical Regulation”; No. 123-FZ dated June 22, 2008 “Technical Regulations on Fire Safety Requirements” and No. 384-FZ dated December 30, 2009 “Technical Regulations on the Safety of Buildings and Structures”. SRT 36554501-073-2023 applies to steel structures of unique coatings, including including large-span buildings and structures for maintenance, ensuring the safe functioning of buildings and structures. The standard provides an explanation of the concept of “unique buildings and structures”: these include buildings and structures with a height exceeding 100 m, or with a span of more than 100 m, or with a console departure of more than 20 m, or, if the depth of the underground part, relative to the planning mark of the ground, is more than 15 m, or structures where structures and structural schemes are used with the use of non-standard or specially developed calculation methods, or requiring verification on physical models, as well as sports and entertainment, religious buildings, exhibition pavilions, public buildings, shopping and entertainment complexes with an estimated stay of more than 1,000 people inside or more than 10,000 people near the facility. The article presents the materials that served as the basis for the creation of a service station for the operation of steel structures in the coatings of unique structures.

Damage to medical complexes in the Gaza Strip during the Israel–Hamas war: a geospatial analysis

IntroductionMedical facilities are civilian objects specially protected during armed conflict by international humanitarian law (IHL). These protections are customarily applied regardless of the conflict, parties or contexts involved. Attacks on...

Precast-Monolithic Reinforced Concrete Large-Span Shells of Unique Buildings from Enlarged Elements

The stress-strain state of precast monolithic reinforced concrete shells from enlarged elements taking into account the installation conditions. The results of experimental-theoretical studies of precast monolithic reinforced concrete shells of complex geometry assembled from enlarged elements are given. The studies were carried out on full-scale composite shells 48x48 m and diameter 96m, its enlarged elements 3x18m and 3x24m as well as on the shell model on a scale of 1:10 and 1: 4. The stress-strain state of shells of a similar type was studied with different mounting and splitting designs. Recommendations are given on rational methods for the construction of shells from enlarged elements for public buildings.

ВОЗДУШНЫЙ РЕЖИМ ВЫСОТНЫХ ЗДАНИЙ

The air regime of multi-stores buildings is formed under the influence of wind pressure, air per-meability of enclosing structures, and the characteristics of the functioning of ventilation systems. The complex task of ensuring standardized air parameters in high-rise buildings is quite complex due to the presence of the stack effect, the action of which in the cold season leads to an increase in infiltration and energy consumption. In design practice, infiltration calculations are carried out using engineering methods that do not provide identical solutions. To assess the impact of in-filtration on the air regime of unique buildings, numerical calculations or modeling in wind tun-nels are used, which have a certain degree of reliability. The paper reviews the work on the influ-ence of the stack effect on the location of the neutral axis of the building and infiltration. One of the main measures to reduce infiltration is the use of façade structures with low air permeability. The selection of façade structures is more reliably carried out taking into account test results. Ex-perimental data are presented for determining the air permeability of a fragment of a modular fa-cade and their comparison with the regulatory requirements of the Russian Federation and differ-ent countries. The discrepancy between the calculation results using engineering methods and test results is shown. It is proposed to use the volume flow coefficient to determine the volume of infil-tration air when the pressure difference changes over a wide range. Tested structures can be rec-ommended for high-rise buildings to ensure the required tightness.

Digitalisation of asset management in Chinese temples in Hong Kong

This paper presents the efforts to digitalise the asset management of Chinese temples in Hong Kong, which is a new trial in the industry. To revitalise these unique heritage buildings and empower the temples’ administration with digital tools, three Chinese temples in Ap Lei Chau and Aberdeen directly administrated by the Chinese Temples Committee (CTC) were selected as pilot projects where a digital twin was developed to enable digital asset management. Laser scanning technologies were encompassed, integrated with close-range terrestrial photogrammetry to generate precise 3D Building Information Modelling (BIM). An asset information management platform was built to consolidate the operation data and establish a common data environment to support data-driven management, with parameters collected from Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices and Digital Works Supervision System (DWSS) statistics consolidated. Moreover, Augmented Reality (AR) was leveraged for tourism and education, and different phases of historic temples were modelled to present the evolution and culture over time. Through this project, in addition to the higher operation efficiency enabled by the digitalised workflow and consolidated data source, a digital blueprint was built through the formulation of a digitalisation roadmap, which contains customised recommendations on cutting-edge digital tools’ implementation in relation to heritage monuments. This can be extended to 24 Chinese temples in the future as well.

Method of reinforcing defects in field welds of unique buildings and structures

Introduction. The article presents a new method of reinforcing field welds with defects, impermissible according to the regulation requirements. This method allows reinforcement works to be carried out while maintaining the functional purpose of a building or structure without closing for the repair.Aim. To develop a technology of reinforcing defective welds, which preserves the functional purpose of a structure during repair works without its closure.Materials and methods. Reinforcement is carried out using a sheet of high-strength steel. The reinforcing sheet must be attached to connected field elements, which excludes the defective weld from the operation. Welders are permitted to perform works after testing on control welded joints. Welds, made by a candidate welder, is cut and sent to a specialized laboratory for determining weld strength properties, impact strength of weld macro- and microstructures, as well as the order and dimensions of legs for multi-pass welds. If the obtained weld data meets the standard indicators, the candidate welder is permitted to connect the reinforcement sheets of defective field welds. After making welded joints, they must be checked by visual, instrumental and ultrasonic testing.Results. A method of reinforcing defective welds was developed and implemented. Defects in the welds appeared during the connection of field elements, whose dimensions were less than the transport size, into a single spatial system, for example, the inner contour of a dome cover. This type of reinforcement can be made without closing the building or structure for repair works.Conclusion. The method of weld reinforcement can be used to remedy impermissible derects, detected by visual, instrumental and ultrasonic testing, in any buildings and structures, including unique long-span ones, therefore ensuring their reliable and safe operation after the construction.

Computer modeling of the interaction of the building underground part with the soil foundation during the karst cavity formation on the example of the administrative and business center construction

In restrained urban conditions of Moscow, the accomplishment of complex urban construction projects is complicated by the choice of construction sites, as well as by lack of methods for computer modeling of the interaction of high-rise and unique buildings and structures with the probable formation of karst cavities in the current regulatory documents. The overall profitability of the project is under the great impact of it, therefore a reliable accounting of karts-suffusion processes is a priority issue in designing buildings and structures, especially if it concerns the unique and high-rise ones. The authors analyze the results of the calculations of the forecast assessment of the impact of a karst cavity probable formation on the subsurface parts of building of the administrative and business center construction in flat and spatial formulation. In spatial formulation different positions of the potential karst cavities are considered; their locations were chosen according to standard procedures and were guided by the results of geological and geophysical research. It has been reviewed the formation of arch over a karst cavity in a 2D and 3D formulation in the condition of different location of the karst cavities in plan and by depth of occurrence. It has been made methodological recommendations for determining the predicted bore of the karst cavity, for taking into account the frame stiffness of the aboveground part of the building, for defining the principles of a karst cavity modeling, as well as for the choice of assessment criteria of stability of cover mass above the potential cavity. The discovered differences in the results of 2D and 3D settings permit to make a conclusion that solving the problem in a flat formulation contributes to the overestimation of karst processes danger and, therefore, to the excess in anti-karst measures included in the project.

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND TYPES OF VISUALISATION OF INNOVATIVE ARCHITECTURAL OBJECTS

The study is devoted to the modern practical experience of the formation of innovative architectural objects in the urban environment, highlighting the peculiarities of their architectural design and visualisation. Clarifying key concepts and terms necessary for defining the issues of designing and visualising these innovative architectural objects, such as architectural idea, architectural creativity, architectural concept, architectural environment, architectural form, and model, is a focal point. Theoretical exploration and analysis of the experiences of forming innovative architectural objects reveal them to be complex and unique structures, buildings, and complexes in the urban environment. Creating such objects demands careful consideration of various influencing factors, including urban planning, architectural planning, constructional, ecological, aesthetic, and economic aspects. The article considers different types of architectural design and visualisation of innovative architectural objects. Furthermore, the concept of ‘visualisation’ is defined as a specific way of demonstrating the nature of the model of architectural objects. We highlighted the role of automated design systems in creating innovative architectural objects, showcasing their ability to save time due to the automation of many typical operations and ensure maximum accuracy of drawings. The discussion extends to the features of using two-dimensional and three-dimensional computer graphics and animation. Two-dimensional computer graphics are a collection of images created with the help of a computer, while three-dimensional graphics are intended to simulate photography or video recording of pre-prepared three-dimensional objects. The main functions of three-dimensional graphics programs are defined as the creation of three-dimensional objects and two-dimensional drawings, visualisation of 3D drawings, and calculation functions. The article identifies the most common software for creating innovative architectural objects and their surrounding environment, including AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, and 3D Studio MAX. Artlantis R, SketchUp, Maya, Cinema 4D, SolidWorks, V-Ray, and Blender, among others, are also used for visualising innovative architectural objects. A few advantages of using modern computer architectural design and visualisation capabilities have been revealed. Notably, the realistic graphic demonstration of a projected 3D model of an innovative architectural object provides the most comprehensive idea of its future appearance and the nature of its surroundings. Such a model makes it possible to see the object from different angles in the exterior as well as evaluate its quality characteristics in the interior. We conclude by outlining prospective trends in the design and visualisation of innovative architectural objects, underscoring the ongoing evolution in this dynamic field. Keywords: architectural design, visualisation, innovations, architectural object, environment.

Features of the Operation of Anchor Plates for Fixing Windows under the Action of Wind Loads

Numerical and laboratory studies have been carried out to study the static operation of anchor plates under the action of wind loads. Numerical studies of the operation of a standard anchor plate under the action of a compressive load acting perpendicular to the plane of the window have shown that its carrier is several times less than the force that occurs at the attachment points of window blocks when peak wind loads are applied to them. At the same time, the existing experience in the operation of window blocks shows that anchor plates in the vast majority of cases retain their bearing capacity throughout the entire working life of the window block. This indicates that the simplified design scheme of the anchor plate used in practice does not fully reflect its actual operation as part of the window structure. This statement was verified during laboratory tests of a window block with typical design fixed with anchor plates to a frame that simulates a window opening. It is established that the static operation of the anchor plate is significantly influenced by both the fastening of the window frame with mounting foam and the limitation of anchor plates deformations by window slopes. The issue of calculating anchor plates for the effect of wind loads should be considered by the professional community in order to develop both common approaches to the calculation of such fasteners and the fundamental possibility of their use for windows installation, especially in unique buildings.

Unique architecture in conditions of conflicting objectives and subjective factors (stadium case studies) (Moscow)

Unique buildings reflect a social demand for innovative urban space organization, new perspectives of human activities, and growing need for a safe and favorable environment. Architectural design of unique buildings, especially at early stages, is complicated by uncertainty of functional tasks, absence of regulatory requirements, and necessity for significant modifications during the process. The design experience of stadiums for 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia shows the development of a productive creative idea. The development of this typology is identified by a comprehensive analysis of the architectural heritage and scientific literature. Requirements of international sports organizations for spatial and planning solutions of sports arenas are summarized herein, which form the basis of the Russian construction standardization. Recommendations are provided for the architectural concept preservation.

ARCHITECTURE OF RAILWAY STATION BUILDINGS OF THE RAILWAY IVANO-FRANKIVSK–VORONENKA

The buildings of the Ivano-Frankivsk–Voronenka railway station date back to 1892–1894. The oldest of them were implemented according to three typical projects of the Imperial and Royal Austrian State Railways. They have a spatial, structural and art relationship with the railway stations of Halychyna, Bukovyna and other regions of the sub-Austrian part of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. In the interwar period (1921–1939), the damaged buildings of railway stations were restored and new railway stations of Delatyn and Tatariv appeared. After the Second World War railway buildings were rebuilt with a tendency towards simplification. Not seldom passenger buildings appeared on the stop platforms in forms of simple semi-open pavilions. Nowadays, some of the historical buildings are also used for residence, most of them are in good and satisfactory state. All railway stations and stopping points are of the on-bank type, connecting landing platforms with station buildings and settlements on the same ground level. 7 from the 11 original typical railway station buildings of the imperial period have been preserved up till now. They form a chain which is interspersed with the unique buildings of Delatyn, Tatariv, Yaremche and a few passenger buildings near the landing platforms. The primary compositional and stylistic integrity of the architecture of the railway buildings is preserved. All historical buildings of the railway stations of the studied group are worthy and should have the status of an architectural monument. The use of buildings may go beyond transport needs. They can accommodate hotels, restaurants, museums, exhibitions, clubs and other public institutions. This corresponds to the modern trend of understanding and using of such objects. When establishing a regular connection by daytime regional trains in clock mode of railway communication, unified landing platforms with their connection to settlements and with informational and service provision should be arranged. The resources of existing railway station buildings and other passenger facilities should be included in this process.

Seismic Resistance of Non-Linearly Deformable Large-Span Spatial Structures of Unique Buildings

Analytical, computer and experimental modeling methods are applied in the study of seismic resistance and changing dynamic parameters of long-term loaded non-linearly deformed large-span spatial shell structures. Physically and geometrically nonlinear deformation models and computational algorithms for solving dynamic problems are proposed for estimating the stress-strain state of smooth and ribbed spatial systems with variable stiffness caused by damage accumulation and orthotropic structure reinforced by ribs. The possibility of using the proposed method of taking into account variable dynamic stiffness in calculations for solving problems of dynamic strength and stability of spatial large-span shells of unique buildings of complex geometry is shown.

Analysis of modern approaches to assessing reliability in construction

Introduction. The study considers modern strategies for ensuring the reliability of building structures in Russian and foreign regulations, including probabilistic, risk-informed and semi-probabilistic criteria of reliability assessment, at all stages of the life cycle of the structure. The advantages and disadvantages of prescriptive and parametric approaches are analyzed and ways of their further improvement are suggested.Aim. To clarify the terminology of parametric regulation in construction, to analyze the existing differences in its interpretation, and to develop an innovative strategy for further development of Russian regulation based on a comparative analysis of domestic and foreign approaches to reliability assessment.Materials and methods. The methodology involved studying the structure of Russian and foreign regulatory documents in the field of reliability and performing their comparative analysis. The study considered the main approaches to technical regulation in the construction industry.Results. The analysis outlined the criteria underlying the fastest introduction of innovations and ensuring the safety of technical solutions. The study demonstrated the difference between the meaning of the term “parametric regulation” in Russian strategy and its foreign interpretation. The regulation standards of the Russian Federation are based mainly on a semi-probabilistic approach and specification of partial reliability factors, i.e. individual parameters of strength and loads, while in the foreign standards, notably in ISO 2394:2016 and Eurocodes, the emphasis is shifted to qualitative and probabilistic criteria for assessing reliability. However, all social, economic and performance criteria should be observed only after all requirements for the reliability and safety of people have been met. Thus, both Russian and foreign approaches to regulation demonstrate no fundamental contradictions. The approaches are gradually moving towards convergence while maintaining continuity in the development of the regulatory framework.Conclusions. The principles of ensuring the reliability of the designed buildings and structures in Russian, international and foreign regulation standards are quite close and are based on the limit state method with a reasonable combination of mandatory and recommended parameters. The main criterion consists in ensuring the safety of human life. Under contemporary conditions, traditional semi-probabilistic approaches to regulation should be accompanied by mechanisms for rapid introduction of innovations and new technologies in construction. In terms of reliability, these mechanisms involve additional probabilistic reliability criteria and risk assessment methods. The reliability criteria will contribute in choosing the optimal design and technological solutions for the construction of unique buildings and structures, higher criticality structures, as well as in assessing existing structures during their life cycle.

Application of geodetic methods for preventing emergencies in the construction and operation of buildings and structures

Introduction. The paper describes distortions of geometry in buildings and structures under construction as well as those already commissioned, which increase the risk of an emergency. The paper also shows the reasons for controlling the geometry for its compliance with design form and stability, as well as possible impact of deviations in the design geometry on adjacent buildings and structures.Aim: to analyze and describe the application of geodetic methods for preventing emergencies in the construction and operation of buildings and structures.Materials and methods. The paper presents methods and techniques for measuring the deformations of buildings using modern robotic tacheometers, inclinometers, satellite equipment, as well as hydrostatic leveling, in order to obtain reliable and valid parameters of the deformed state of building structures under both static and dynamic effects on the building or structure.Results. The paper explains the operating principles of measuring systems using automatic geodetic monitoring systems. The authors describe the process of determining displacements and deflections during the erection of large-span shells of unique buildings. These include the steel framed dome of the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, Russia, which has the largest unsupported span for structures of this class (310 m), large-span transformed shell of the Gazprom Arena Stadium in Saint Petersburg, and large-span shell of the Kazan Arena Stadium in Kazan, Russia. Deflections and displacements of the reference points of the steel pyramid were determined for the Opening Ceremony at the Kazan Arena Stadium. The paper also presents the methods for determining the parameters of deformations during the construction of the Rhythmic Gymnastics Center in Luzhniki, metro lines in Moscow, and Kashirskaya–Karacharovo section of the Moscow ring railroad. Measurement methods have been developed and implemented for all these facilities.Conclusion. The above measurement methods are successfully used to determine horizontal displacements and deflections for monitoring the deformations of buildings and structures, which increases their reliability and safety during construction and operation.

Socio-economic sustainability approaches applied within the conservation strategies of the historical city of Jeddah “The case study of Al-Balad”

Sustainability has gained significant attention in recent years due to the critical circumstances of global crises. The historical city of Al-Balad has been the center of attention given to the conservation field aiming to preserve the city's identity while considering its historical role, unique buildings, the past of the city, and its people. Socio-economic sustainability in conserving the old district of Al-Balad is achieved through multiple strategies including the economic opportunities offered for the locals in terms of business development, as well as attracting tourists, increasing property value, and adaptive reuse. The aim of the research is to detail the socio-economic heritage preservation techniques and analyze the efforts made by the Saudi government and civil organizations to create a series of recommendations based on the recent research and literature review to evaluate its effectiveness in protection. The research methodology used is a qualitative approach, with field visits to take a closer look at current activities and progress in the field, as well as peer literature reviews and official sources. The findings of the research show a development in the social and economic aspects of the community as a result of the efforts related to the conservation of the heritage place.

Перспективы строительства уникальных зданий и сооружений из древесины

Projects of large-scale wooden buildings and structures are presented. The projects of buildings and structures erected using wood are analyzed. The main structural solutions based on wooden structures used in large-scale projects are considered. The most popular technologies for the production of wooden structures for unique construction are described. Based on the analysis of the projects of buildings and structures, it was concluded about the prospects for the construction of unique buildings and structures made of wood.