Unification Processes Research Articles

Законодательное использование признаков статусно-ролевого положения личности виновного и потерпевшего как отражение тенденции специализации российского уголовного закона

The aim of the article is to assess the frequency and validity of the use of the status role characteristics of the guilty person and/or the victim in the construction of special elements of crimes in the context of the issues of the redundancy of the current criminal legislation specialization as the dominant trend of its development. The empirical basis of the study is the numerical values obtained in the course of arithmetic operations to determine the dynamics of legislative changes in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation and the frequency of using the status role characteristics of the guilty person and/or the victim in special norms. The methodological basis of the work is the formal legal method, which allows working directly with the text of the criminal law in order to both conclude about the high dynamics of its changes and analyze new special norms, which ultimately led the author to the conclusion about the redundancy of its specialization. In addition, the method of mathematical calculations (simplest arithmetic operations), as well as other general scientific methods (analysis, synthesis) were used. Within the framework of a critical understanding of the legislative criminal legal activity for the period of 2018-2020, attention is drawn to its orientation and technical and legal side, the content of which indicates the predominance of the trend of specialization. Being natural and necessary, specialization allows reflecting the differentiation of legal relations as a process that takes place objectively, by differentiating the law. In the case of criminal law, this involves the emergence of special rules for the purpose of differentiating liability. The analysis of some of the special norms that have reappeared in the Special Part of the Code allows concluding that the legislator has chosen a casual way of presenting them, which, taking into account the high dynamics of lawmaking in criminal law, clearly indicates that the trend of specialization has acquired a redundant character. Taking into account the conclusion about the redundancy of specialization of the criminal law, it is possible to overcome it both by rejecting unjustified, reactive criminalization that simulates an active criminal policy of combating crime and by moving to unification processes in terms of eliminating terminological errors, violations of the requirements of systemic legislation, and reducing regulatory material.

CONSOLIDATION OF THE NATION DURING THE UKRAINIAN REVOLUTION OF 1914 – 1923: MAIN DIRECTIONS OF HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DISCOURSE

The purpose of the study is to analyze the place and role of the national unification movement during the Ukrainian revolution of 1914 – 1923, to elucidate the origins of this process and the influence of party-political, the state-building factors on it. The methodology of the research is based on the objective critical analysis of the historiographical complex, the elucidation of factors influencing the vision formation of the studied historical processes, a comparative historical identification of ideological differences assessments, typology of different blocks of scientific works according to logical characteristics. The Scientific novelty of the research consists in proving in modern state historiography the dominance of the state paradigm in the unification processes coverage, which was created by direct participants of the events, highlighting the key trends in the approaches of the authors of the so-called "Pro-UNR" and "Pro-ZUNR" currents to understanding the origins, goals and role of the Dnieper Ukraine and Western Ukrainian political and state elites, respectively, in the national consolidation process. The Conclusions. The analysis of the Ukrainian historiography has shown that most authors, describing the problem of conciliarity/ unification during the first stage of the Ukrainian Revolution of 1914 – 1923, usually focus on the cultural and educational processes of a national nature combined with support for the first military national formation – the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen. It has been proved that the conciliar and consolidation-state processes of the period March of 1917 – April of 1918 were covered in the form of gaining a territorial unity and initiating a national-state dialogue with Western Ukraine. At the same time, we believe that the conciliar processes during the period of the Hetmanate have not yet become the subject of special studies in the national historiography. What concerns the very year of 1918, the central place is occupied by the relations between the Directory of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR) and the Western Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR), and the core problem remains the Act of Unification. The national historiography identifies as one of the main obstacles to the state consolidation, the conciliar processes different in content vectors of the state-building in the Western Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR) and the Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR). It has been stated that the national historiography, although rather slow, still overcomes another research stereotype about a separate international policy of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR) or the Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR).

Унификация норм наследственного права в международном частном праве

The article discusses topical issues and features of the unification of inheritance law in the international private law. The beginning of unification processes is associated with the presence of various approaches to the settlement of hereditary relations complicated by a foreign element in various legal systems. The article provides a theoretical and legal analysis of such a phenomenon as a complication of hereditary legal relations of foreign a new subject. To solve certain conflict of laws in the field of inheritance law, in particular, by will, the main international acts are followed. The authors aim to study the unification processes in the field of inheritance law in the international private law, which reflect modern development trends in a theoretical sense. In conclusion, the authors come to the conclusion that the legislation of a number of states is trying to protect the rights of weak parties in a potentially equal legal relationship. In this case, we are talking about the corresponding legislative consolidation general principle of law— the use of favorable law for the weak side of the legal relationshipHowever, the possibility of unification approaches of states to solving the issue of post-mortem rights can be defined not even as a trend, but as a be separately considered within the framework of international organizations dealing with issues of unification of inheritance law.

Architectural Design and Methods Inspired by Children’s Culture and Creativity [Global Culture and Spatial Individualization

The topic of children and adolescents in architecture was particularly explored in the modern era. This phenomenon was, among others, a result of contemporary social and demographic conditions as well as the development of social sciences and psychology. The 20th century, called a Century of the Child, was a period of specific ‘childhood worship’. It was a time of tremendous hopes placed in the young generation and its potential to rebuild the world. The result was that the ubiquitous theme of the child and childhood also appeared in architectural theory and practice. The purpose of the research is to answer a question How the topic of ‘child in architecture’ may inspire in the times of aging societies? Principal results of the research are to distinguish three aspects of the phenomenon of ‘child in architecture’. 1. A child was discovered as a user - special places were prepared for children – a zone of special characteristics at home and in the city, with design solutions inspired by the child’s developmental needs. 2. Children’s culture and creativity have become an inspiration for spatial solutions of the environment [designed for children and adults] and urban regeneration of the public space. 3. A child was asked to be a co-creator in the process of the participatory design, becoming an active user communicating needs, a partner inspiring future project activities. The subject of the child in architecture, discovered and explored in the last century, generated a new typology of solutions [directed to children or inspired by the culture of childhood]. Over time, patterns from the world of adults and children began to intertwine, creating a new type of multi-generational solutions in the public space. The child’s zone has been embedded in the architecture of the city in the concept of mixed use [which is a distinguishing feature of contemporary solutions]. Major conclusions of the paper: The homogenization, or the unification, of the culture is one of the effects of globalization. The individualization of design solutions [for example adaptation to the requirements of specific age groups of users] can be a way to resist unfavourable space unification processes. The paper is based on comparative studies of public utility buildings [serving in particular the purpose of out-of-school education] as well as observations and comparison of the work of practicing architects, students and children participating in workshop classes implemented at the Silesian University of Technology.

From ‘Afro-Indians’ to ‘Afro-global’ networking: contemporary identification and unification processes among Siddis

ABSTRACT Africans and their descendants have occupied various social positions throughout Indian history, and the ancestral routes of contemporary Siddis can be very distinct. Siddi communities today live in diverse areas, speak different languages and practice various religions. Interestingly, despite all these differences, Siddi networks are in place, and are developing further on the regional and national levels. These networks, based on Siddis’ common identification with their African roots, are now extending beyond India’s borders, as relationships are being forged between Siddis and other people of African descent across the globe. These emerging connections provide Siddis with new ways of considering and renegotiating their social position in Indian and global societies. In this article, I explore the social implications of the attempts to unite ‘Afro-Indians’ as well as in the ongoing ‘Afro-global’ networking. Furthermore, I will consider how contemporary unification processes among Siddis echo pan-African movements.

O cérebro pronto para a linguagem

Pesquisadores têm se interessado pelas bases neurobiológicas do processamento da linguagem há séculos. Assim, a conferência do professor Peter Hagoort no evento Abralin Ao Vivo contribuiu ricamente para o debate acerca das bases neurobiológicas da linguagem. A presente resenha fornece ao leitor um resumo detalhado das principais questões abordadas na conferência. Discutem-se o Modelo Clássico de produção e compreensão da linguagem (também conhecido como o modelo Wernicke-Lichtheim-Geschwind) e suas limitações, assim como o Modelo Memória, Unificação e Controle (MUC), proposto por Hagoort (2005, 2013, 20016), e suas contribuições para o estudo da neurobiologia da linguagem. Além disso, nessa resenha são feitas relações pertinentes sobre o paradigma de priming, os processos de unificação sintática e semântica e o recrutamento de circuitarias de domínio geral para a plena operação da linguagem.

Die Ligdraer as a Grassroots Engagement on URCSA’s Church Unification and Reconciliation between 1990-1997

One of the pre-occupations of God’s mission on earth ( missio Dei ) includes unity and reconciliation. This is well documented in the work of the catholic missiologist, Robert Schreiter (reconciliation), David J Bosch (unity) as well as the ecumenical World Mission Conferences (New Delhi, 1961; Athens, 2005). Unification processes of all the South African Churches (especially between traditionally/originally black and white race-based Churches) coincided with the transition period since 1990. The Churches, including the DRMC and the DRCA, went on a path of unification. This did not come without a wide range of “stumbling blocks.” Die Ligdraer , as the official newspaper of the DRMC, announced the date of the founding Synod between 14-17 April 1994 using the metaphor of a ‘wedding’ to reflect on the union between the two separate, racially-based Churches (NGSK, 1993) . From a missiological perspective, this paper deals with the case of the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa (URCSA) in presenting the perspectives and sentiments on the ‘stumbling blocks’ experienced, particularly the informal conversations and discussions that are mostly presented in the Church’s newspaper ( Die Ligdraer/Ligstraal ). It focuses specifically on the 1990-1997 period of the Church, where most of the letters from members of the congregations, emotions and sensitive issues on the road towards unity were discussed. The paper limits itself to the newspaper of the DRMC, with a focus on the discussions and voices from members at the grassroots but also ministers that were listening to members in congregations to reflect on the ‘sacrifices’, compromises, accommodation and mutual trust that was at play and the strategies of the leadership of these Churches to facilitate reconciliation.

A Computational Theory for the Emergence of Grammatical Categories in Cortical Dynamics.

A general agreement in psycholinguistics claims that syntax and meaning are unified precisely and very quickly during online sentence processing. Although several theories have advanced arguments regarding the neurocomputational bases of this phenomenon, we argue that these theories could potentially benefit by including neurophysiological data concerning cortical dynamics constraints in brain tissue. In addition, some theories promote the integration of complex optimization methods in neural tissue. In this paper we attempt to fill these gaps introducing a computational model inspired in the dynamics of cortical tissue. In our modeling approach, proximal afferent dendrites produce stochastic cellular activations, while distal dendritic branches–on the other hand–contribute independently to somatic depolarization by means of dendritic spikes, and finally, prediction failures produce massive firing events preventing formation of sparse distributed representations. The model presented in this paper combines semantic and coarse-grained syntactic constraints for each word in a sentence context until grammatically related word function discrimination emerges spontaneously by the sole correlation of lexical information from different sources without applying complex optimization methods. By means of support vector machine techniques, we show that the sparse activation features returned by our approach are well suited—bootstrapping from the features returned by Word Embedding mechanisms—to accomplish grammatical function classification of individual words in a sentence. In this way we develop a biologically guided computational explanation for linguistically relevant unification processes in cortex which connects psycholinguistics to neurobiological accounts of language. We also claim that the computational hypotheses established in this research could foster future work on biologically-inspired learning algorithms for natural language processing applications.

Models of Irish Unification Processes

The purpose of this paper is to identify and evaluate pathways to Irish unification that would be (a) constitutionally permissible in Ireland—i.e. the State currently governed by the Constitution of Ireland 1937—(b) consistent with the terms of the Belfast / Good Friday Agreement 1998 (GFA), and (c) consistent with the Northern Ireland Act 1998. Starting with the southern Irish perspective, we argue that bare unification does not require constitutional amendment, and could be achieved by a plebiscite or (probably) legislation. There are, however, many related changes frequently suggested in the context of unification that would require either a constitutional amendment or constitutional replacement in the South. Without evaluating the merits of any of these changes, we make an assumption—which we believe to be reasonable although contestable—that unification would involve at least some changes of this type. It follows that unification would involve a referendum, either to amend or replace the Constitution of Ireland 1937. We argue that the GFA requires that this referendum be concurrent with a referendum in Northern Ireland, although there is some ambiguity as to the meaning of ‘concurrence’. If both referendums favour unification, there is then an obligation on the Irish and British Governments to introduce and support in their respective parliaments legislation to give effect to that wish. Irish unification must therefore involve, if it is to meet the three criteria identified above, concurrent referendums North and South followed by legislation approved by Westminster and the Oireachtas (Irish Parliament). We go further, however, and specify three desiderata against which unification processes can be assessed. First, that those voting in referendums should be able to have a reasonably clear idea of what the implications of their vote. Second, that the processes should reduce the risk of the UK and Ireland diverging over the final constitutional status of Northern Ireland. Third, that the processes should allow for a wide range of consultation and negotiation over the constitutional and political structure of a unified Ireland, including extensive attempts to engage with the views of northern unionists. We identify several models that fit the legal parameters. We suggest, however, that the model that best meets the desiderata is one in which the form of a united Ireland is settled through negotiations prior to the referendums. The required legislation in Westminster and the Oireachtas should then follow as a matter of course.

Methodology for the development of transformation concepts for digital challenges in the production site

Current technical discussions like Industrie 4.0 and now Artificial Intelligence lead to more and more agreement potential between the employer side and workers’ representatives. This paper is about a methodological concept in the learning factory where the social partners (employer and workers’ representatives) jointly work on an implementation project in their company. Conflicts between both parties lead to higher costs and longer time in the commissioning of new technologies. Since the commissioning of new technologies in Germany is subject to codetermination the importance here is even higher. For this reason, an assumption of this approach is that it will lead to faster unification processes of the social partners to save time and money. The learning factory will be introduced as a neutral location to handle projects factual and not ideological. Conflict management theories and the holistic view of the learning factory with the technology-organization-personnel (T-O-P) approach will support the new concept as well. With the help of the learning factory participants will be able to enhance their knowledge about special technologies through practical exercises. They would be able to discuss at eye level in order to observe the most important fields of action during the introduction process of technologies. The method uses the classical morphology of learning factories and extends the concepts by several aspects. It will also show the possibilities and limits of the method.

The Genesis of Higher Education Internationalisation

Introduction. Nowadays, scientific and educational community underestimates the importance of fundamental research in the field of internationalisation of higher education. Meanwhile, the definition of the philosophical foundations of this phenomenon can shed light on the nature and rules of its development. In this regard, the research of such a fundamental problem as its genesis may affect further affords in the field of its justification, determination of ultimate goals and mechanisms of implementation, as well as interpretation of its ethical, political and spiritual aspects of international academic mobility.The aim of the research was to reveal the real reasons and conditions of internationalisation as a new level of higher education, public and supranational policy.Methodology and research methods. The present research is based on the methodological framework of critical analysis through the retrospective, reflexive, comparative types of analysis, the methods of synthesis, generalisation and systematisation of various scientific points of view.Results and scientific novelty. At present, the philosophical aspects of higher education internationalisation are developed by a small number of scientists, who view its genesis from the perspective of globalisation. Three options are identified: internationalisation as a part of globalisation; internationalisation as a response to the challenges of its development; internationalisation as a phenomenon, which precedes global transformations. In each of these approaches, internationalisation acts as a space of interaction of national actors opposing the unification processes. Meanwhile, the countries-leaders of internationalisation rather act themselves as unifiers, calling into question all theories of the background of the under-discussed phenomenon. The author takes into account the following premises: the destruction of world colonial system and the end of the Cold war, which have actualised the integration agenda in Europe at the end of the 20th century. New international agenda, based on neighborhood strategy and integration, has required not only the development of accustomed horizontal communication, but also the development of vertical communication. The request for time has led to the rise of higher education internationalisation, which replaced the idea of “soft power” and generated national interests, in particular, through channelling of excessive educational resources abroad. When state subjectivity gained the importance of basic value in Europe and in international communication in general, the process of internationalisation was required. Such process increased pan-European competitiveness by combining the efforts of different countries.Practical significance. A clearer understanding of the genesis and the nature of the internationalisation process of higher education will avoid the use of resources at the level of both specific institutions and national institutions and, more importantly, will help to overcome the obstacles to the development of educational systems.

La comunidad de "peraires" de la ciudad de Valencia: de la disgregación a la unión confraternal (1340-1511)

El presente artículo se centra en las formas de organización corporativa de la industria lanera valenciana durante el periodo bajomedieval, desde la fundación de la primera cofradía de peraires en 1340 y la posterior división en cofradías de obreros y maestros en la segunda mitad del siglo XIV hasta los procesos de unificación corporativa de 1444 y 1477, que integraron a todas las categorías laborales (mestres, macips y exempts) en una misma estructura profesional. El estudio individualizado de las distintas asociaciones de pelaires permite trazar la trayectoria y adquisición de competencias de uno de los principales oficios del sector textil valenciano.

Literatura w kręgu unijnych zbliżeń. W 450. rocznicę Unii Lubelskiej

The paper is an introduction to the discussion devoted to literary evidence of “unification initiatives” (unions, alliances, international agreements and other unification projects) as witnessed in the history of Europe for many centuries. Artistic writings have long been presenting the dialogue between union partners, taking place both in public (international or national) as well as private space. Among these phenomena, particularly noteworthy are unification visions, cultural osmosis, evidence of individual participation in unification processes, acts of building the collective awareness, ways of interpreting both shared and alien cultural or religious symbols, literary expressions of the relations between “I” and “You”, strategies used in constructing the linguistic image of the shared world and alien worlds. The paper attempts to systematize specific issues related to these problems and is an introduction to the discussion carried out in the latest issue of „Tematy i Konteksty”.

Literature in the Context of Unification Initiatives to Commemorate the 450th Anniversary of the Union of Lublin

The paper is an introduction to the discussion devoted to literary evidence of “unification initiatives” (unions, alliances, international agreements and other unification projects) as witnessed in the history of Europe over many centuries. Artistic writings have long presented the dialogue between union partners, taking place both in public (international or national) as well as private space. Among these phenomena, particularly noteworthy are unification visions, cultural osmosis, evidence of individual participation in unification processes, acts of building the collective awareness, ways of interpreting both shared and alien cultural or religious symbols, literary expressions of the relations between “I” and “You”, strategies used in constructing the linguistic image of the shared world and alien worlds. The paper attempts to systematize specific issues related to these problems and is an introduction to the discussion carried out in the latest issue of „Tematy i Konteksty”.

TEISMINIŲ DOKUMENTŲ ĮVARDIJIMAI TREČIAJAME LIETUVOS STATUTE IR JŲ RAIDOS BRUOŽAI

DESIGNATION OF JUDICIAL DOCUMENTS IN THE THIRD STATUTE OF LITHUANIA AND THE ATTRIBUTES OF THEIR EVOLUTION ADAM STANKEVIČ The author of the article analyses the designation of documents drawn up and issued by the court, their conception, field of application, and place in the court procedure as presented in the Third Statute of Lithuania (TSL). In addition, an attempt is made to exhibit the changes that such documents and their designations underwent in later centuries (until the end of the 18th c.) by means of the example of the Lithuanian Tribunal. The research revealed that documents which in the sources from different periods were referred to by the same name meant different things or were simultaneously attributed several meanings. In the 17th-18th century, only part of the terms featured in the Third Statute of Lithuania were used in the judicial practice of the Lithuanian Tribunal, and with time some of them were replaced with other terms. Several terms denoting summonses (pozew, mandat, zakaz) can be identified in the TSL, and all of them were in use until the very end of the 18th century. However, a single term – dekret / decretum – was used to designate the judgement (actually, for some time there was a differentiation between the court judgement and its procedural summary, but later the generalized term for the judgement prevailed). A number of documents in the TSL are referred to as the “open letter”, however, later some of them acquired specialised names (e.g. the power of attorney). With time, there were certain changes in the context in which some of the terms were used (e.g. the term “cedule” which in the 18th century was already consistently used exceptionally in a particular situation, namely when a litigant refused to obey the order of the court and informed in writing a judicial officer of such refusal) or the terms themselves underwent certain changes (in the 18th century the term membran was substituted with the term blankiet). Part of the judicial documents mentioned in the TSL disappeared in the long run or there was a certain decrease in their significance (this is true of the reminder and adjournment documents as well as glejt (protection letter)). The examples above suggest that the Lithuanian Tribunal would sometimes issue reminders and guarantee documents, though legal acts did not explicitly provide for that. The TSL offered a number of terms hardly related with the investigation of a case, therefore in the early 18th century, with the improvement of judicial procedures, they underwent rapid changes. The procedure of the implementation of a court ruling, which underwent significant changes, is accountable for the introduction of new terms, for example, with time several terms pertaining to the notification of the litigants were used simultaneously (obwieszczenie, innotescencyja, list tradycyjny). Most probably due to the unification processes observed in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 18th century, a number of Latin origin terms were introduced in the judicial practice of the GDL, e.g. cytacyja, decyzyja, innotestencyja, plenipotencyja, obdukcyja, wizyja, inkwizycyja, weryfikacyja, kalkulacyja, tradycyja (all of them had been used in Poland but were not featured in the TSL).

Unia Europejska i jej granice. W poszukiwaniu modelu integracji na europejskich peryferiach

Research into borders and frontiers in the context of European integration has evolved, leading to the question of the shape of the external borders of the EU and their organization in relation to the external surroundings. The approach to how the unification processes of the continent are presented has recently changed, and the Union is being perceived through its peripheries. The one-way model of the flow of ideas from the center to the peripheries has been replaced by a two-way one. This allows us to use the Westfalen, imperial and neo-medieval geopolitical model to analyze the EU and, consequently, the four geo-strategies that are regionally diversified in the northern, eastern and southern peripheries of the Union. Nevertheless, it is the periphery that plays the key role and initiates certain types of relations with neighbors, whereas the center approves of them and modifies them, according to its own requirements.

Modeling the Economic Impacts of Korean Unification

This paper explores the economic impacts of Korean unification on North and South Korea. It presents a new consistent database on macroeconomic, sectoral and trade data, and an input–output table for the North Korean economy, and then incorporates it in a global intertemporal multi‐sector general equilibrium model. Assuming hypothetical scenarios such as North Korea's reform and gradual convergence, its sudden collapse and immediate unification, and chaos and crises in both Koreas, we quantify the consequences of Korean unification on economic activity, trade and capital flows in the two Koreas. The results highlight the importance of the unification processes and of alternative policy responses in both Koreas to the economic impacts of unification.

La perspectiva política en la construcción de una agenda de integración económica interamericana desde la experiencia colombiana

Este artículo señala la importancia de la dimensión política en los procesos de unificación como escenario de los países para potenciar su crecimiento a partir de su ordenamiento jurídico y su legitimidad internacional sin un detrimento de su soberanía. Asimismo, expone lineamientos que desde la experiencia colombiana permiten la construcción de una agenda política para las relaciones económicas en el marco interamericano y obliga a la observancia de los derechos humanos como la principal condición para la integración.

Modelling the Economic Impacts of Korean Unification

This paper explores the economic impacts of Korean unification on North and South Korea. It presents a new consistent database on macroeconomic, sectoral and trade data, and an input output table for the North Korean economy, and then incorporates it in a global intertemporal multi-sector general equilibrium model. Assuming three hypothetical scenarios such as North Korea’s reform and gradual convergence, its sudden collapse and immediate unification, and chaos and crises in both Koreas, we quantify the consequences of Korean unification on economic activity, trade and capital flows in the two Koreas. The results highlight the importance of the unification processes and of alternative policy responses in both Koreas to the economic impacts of unification.

Upartyjnienie versus personalizacja jako czynniki determinujące zachowania wyborcze w krajowych elekcjach w 2015 roku

Party-dependency versus personalization as the factors determining voting behaviour in national elections in 2015 The aim of the article was to present factors that determined voting behaviour of citizens in national elections in 2015 in the perspective of party and personal attitudes of the interviewees. Except for presenting conclusions that result from the course of the research process in the aforementioned range, also the elements that could have affected eventual responses of the interviewees were indicated. These include changes at the position of PO (civic platform) leaders, appearance of new political entities (Ryszard Petru’s Nowoczesna, Together Party, Kukiz 15), or unification processes on the political right, and partially on the left. Personal conflicts and ways of conducting the campaign that could have affected attitudes of voters were also indicated. A complement to logical conclusions from the conducted research in the perspective of party and personal determinants of voting preferences were also analyses of whether election posters and billboards should be put in the areas that belong to churches. From the perspective of political options supported by citizens, and their attitudes towards the role of Church during electoral campaigns, the analysis of this phenomenon led to interesting conclusions. Key words: elections behaviour, presidential elections, parliamentary elections, personalization, electoral, Poland