Ungulate Prey Species Research Articles

Exploring temporal activity of dholes, their prey, and competitors in East Java, Indonesia.

Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are endangered large carnivores found in scattered populations in Asia. One of the main threats to dholes is the decreasing prey availability throughout their distribution range. In the present study, we used camera trap data collected over 6 years to investigate the temporal activity patterns of dholes and their putative prey species in Baluran National Park in Java, Indonesia. We also explored the overlap in activity between dholes and the park's other remaining large carnivore the Javan leopard (Panthera pardus melas), as well as humans. Furthermore, we investigated potential differences in activity patterns between dholes in packs and dholes roaming in pairs or alone. We found a high temporal overlap between dholes and their wild ungulate prey species (ranging from Δ = 0.66-0.90), with the lowest overlap observed between dholes and bantengs (Bos javanicus) (Δ = 0.66), and the highest between dholes and muntjacs (Muntiacus muntjak) (Δ = 0.90). A very low overlap was found between dholes and domestic cattle (Bos indicus) (Δ = 0.27) whereas a moderately high overlap was found between dholes and leopards (Δ = 0.70) and dholes and humans (Δ = 0.62). We found a significant difference in activity patterns between dholes in packs and dholes roaming alone or in pairs (Δ = 0.78, p = .01). Single/pairs of dholes were more active both during the day and at night, whereas packs were predominantly active around sunrise and sunset. The high overlap with humans potentially has a negative effect on dhole activity, particularly for dispersing individuals, and the low overlap with domestic species questions the extent to which dholes are considered to predate on them.

Influence of visual perception on movement decisions by an ungulate prey species.

Visual perception is dynamic and depends on physiological properties of a species' visual system and physical characteristics of the environment. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are most sensitive to short- and mid-wavelength light (e.g. blue and green). Wavelength enrichment varies spatially and temporally across the landscape. We assessed how the visual perception of deer influences their movement decisions. From August to September 2019, we recorded 10-min locations from 15 GPS-collared adult male deer in Central Florida. We used Hidden-Markov models to identify periods of movement by deer and subset these data into three time periods based on temporal changes in light environments. We modeled resource selection during movement using path-selection functions and simulated 10 available paths for every path used. We developed five a priori models and used 10-fold cross validation to assess our top model's performance for each time period. During the day, deer selected to move through woodland shade, avoided forest shade, and neither selected nor avoided small gaps. At twilight, deer avoided wetlands as cloud cover increased but neither selected nor avoided other cover types. Visual cues and signals are likely more conspicuous to deer in short-wavelength-enriched woodland shade during the day, while at twilight in long-wavelength-enriched wetlands during cloud cover, visual cues are likely less conspicuous. The nocturnal light environment did not influence resource selection and likely has little effect on deer movements because it's relatively homogenous. Our findings suggest visual perception relative to light environments is likely an underappreciated driver of behaviors and decision-making by an ungulate prey species.

Non-exploitative human disturbance provides shelter for prey from predator.

Human activities can influence behaviors of predators and prey, as well as predator-prey interactions. Using camera trap data, we investigated whether or to what extent human activities influenced behaviors of predators (tigers and leopards) and prey (sambar deer, spotted deer, wild boar, and barking deer), and predator-prey interactions in the Barandabhar Corridor Forest (BCF), Chitwan District, Nepal. A multispecies occupancy model revealed that the presence of humans altered the conditional occupancy of both prey and predator species. Specifically, the conditional occupancy probability of prey was substantially higher (ψ = 0.91, CI = 0.89-0.92) when humans were present than when humans were absent (ψ = 0.68, CI = 0.54-0.79). The diel activity pattern of most prey species overlapped strongly with humans, whereas predators were generally more active when humans were absent. Finally, the spatiotemporal overlap analysis revealed that human-prey interactions (i.e., the probability that both humans and prey species being present on the same grid at the same hourly period) was ~3 times higher (10.5%, CI = 10.4%-10.6%) compared to spatiotemporal overlap between humans and predators (3.1%, CI = 3.0%-3.2%). Our findings are consistent with the human shield hypothesis and suggest that ungulate prey species may reduce predation risk by using areas with high human activities.

Experimental feeding validates nanofluidic array technology for DNA detection of ungulate prey in wolf scats

AbstractThe study of carnivores' diet is a key component to enhance knowledge on the ecology of predators and their effect on prey populations. Although molecular approaches to detect prey DNA in carnivore scats are improving, the validation of their accuracy, a prerequisite for reliable applications within ecological frameworks, is still lagging behind the methodological advances. Indeed, variation in detection probability among prey species can occur, representing a potentially insidious source of bias in food‐habit studies of carnivores. Calibration of DNA‐based methods involves the optimization of specificity and sensitivity and, whereas priority is usually given to the former to avoid false positives, sensitivity is rarely investigated so that false negatives may be largely overlooked. We conducted feeding trials with captive wolves (Canis lupus) to validate a nanofluidic array technology recently developed for the detection of multiple prey species in scats. Using 371 scat samples from 12 wolves fed with a single‐prey diet, the sensitivity of our nanofluidic array method varied between 0.45 and 0.95 for the six main ungulate prey species. The method sensitivity was enhanced by using multiple markers per species and by a relatively low threshold of number of amplifying markers required to confirm a detection. Yet, at least two markers should be used to avoid false positives. By acknowledging sources of bias in sensitivity to reliably interpret the results of DNA‐based dietary methods, our study highlights the relevance of feeding experiments to optimally calibrate the relative thresholds to define a positive detection and investigate the occurrence and extent of biases in sensitivity.

Patterns of predation by the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx throughout its range: ecological and conservation implications

ABSTRACT Predation on ungulates exposes large predators to conflicts with farmers and hunters if they kill livestock and shared game species. Therefore, it is crucial to know the drivers of predation on large prey, understand how they differ from predation on smaller prey and reveal general large‐scale patterns. We tested three hypotheses in the global Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx population: 1) consumption of ungulates and hares increases with their densities, 2) effects of predictors on ungulate and hare predation differ between continents, latitudes, longitudes and landscapes, 3) effects of predictors are generally applicable regardless of study materials (scats, carcasses and intestinal tracts). We collected information from 70 publications, including data from 174 study cases (107 from Europe and 67 from Asia) and 114 sites in 30 countries, mainly Russia (73 cases and 46 sites). Linear regression of logit‐transformed data and logistic regression were used to test the hypotheses. We found that ungulates made up more than half of the lynx diet in areas containing at least 570 individual ungulates/100 km2 and/or located south of 56°N. Predominance of ungulates in the diet could be related to the higher availability of the main medium‐sized ungulate prey species, and to the presence of (mixed) broadleaf deciduous forests with open spaces providing optimal hunting conditions. No significant effects on hare consumption by lynx were revealed, possibly because of a small sample size of hare density data from lynx habitats, fluctuations and instability of hares as a food resource, declines of some hare populations and separation in habitat use by lynx and hares. We conclude that the Eurasian lynx is an adaptable predator, not a lagomorph specialist; throughout its range, the lynx takes ungulates according to their availability. The use of practical nonlethal interventions is important to limit the availability of domestic ungulates (livestock and game) for predation by lynx, and to promote human‐lynx coexistence.

Free-ranging livestock affected the spatiotemporal behavior of the endangered snow leopard (Panthera uncia).

Long recognized as a threat to wildlife, particularly for large carnivores, livestock grazing in protected areas can potentially undermine conservation objectives. The interspecific interactions among livestock, snow leopards (Panthera uncia), and their wild prey in fragile Asian highland ecosystems have been a subject of debate. We strategically deployed 164 camera traps in the Wolong National Nature Reserve to systematically investigate the activities of snow leopards, their primary wild ungulate prey species, and free-ranging livestock. We found that snow leopard habitat use was influenced by both wild prey and livestock. Blue sheep served as the main wild prey that spatially attracted snow leopards and coexisted with yaks while free-ranging yaks significantly restricted snow leopard habitat use both temporally and spatially. This study challenges the conventional understanding that livestock indirectly impacts large carnivores by competing with and displacing wild prey. Our findings highlight that free-ranging yaks within the alpine canyon terrain could directly limit snow leopard habitat use, suggesting a potential risk of grazing in reducing apex predator distribution and jeopardizing their populations. Consequently, managing their coexistence in shared habitats requires a more nuanced approach. Furthermore, our research underscores the importance of further research efforts aimed at enhancing our comprehension of the complex interplay within animal communities and ecosystems. This knowledge will contribute to the development of informed, evidence-based conservation strategies and policies.

Ungulate occurrence in forest harvest blocks is influenced by forage availability, surrounding habitat and silviculture practices

Abstract Forest harvesting causes habitat loss and alteration and can change predator–prey dynamics. In Canada, forest harvesting has shifted the distribution and abundance of ungulates (deer, elk and moose) that prefer early seral forest, resulting in unsustainable caribou predation by shared predators (bears, cougars and wolves). Long‐term solutions for caribou recovery require management to reduce ungulate prey species within caribou ranges. Silviculture practices applied after forest harvesting directly affect the amount of forage available in harvested areas, and therefore influence ungulate distribution, but few studies have completed detailed assessments on how specific treatments of site preparation, planting and stand tending influence ungulate use of harvest blocks. We used camera traps, silviculture data, GIS‐derived habitat and disturbance data, and detailed vegetation data collected at field sites to investigate ungulate occurrence in harvest blocks in west‐central Alberta, Canada. We compared seasonal ungulate occurrence and investigated how site‐specific characteristics, the surrounding habitat and disturbance density, and fine‐scale silviculture treatments influenced ungulate occurrence in blocks. Deer, elk and moose occurrence was higher in summer compared to winter. Elk, moose and white‐tailed deer occurrence was higher in blocks with greater availability of specific forage species. Moose occurrence was higher in blocks with a lower road density in the surrounding area, and white‐tailed deer occurrence was higher in blocks further from seismic lines and with a lower proportion of harvest blocks in the surrounding area. Deer, elk and moose occurrence was higher in younger harvest blocks. Mule deer and white‐tailed deer occurrence was lower in blocks with higher planting densities of lodgepole pine, and mule deer occurrence was also lower in blocks that had been stand tended. Our study provides detailed information on ungulate response to fine‐scale silviculture methods used in Alberta, directly linking wildlife occurrence to forestry practices, and providing practical scientific information to inform sustainable forestry. Translating this research into practical landscape management decisions could benefit boreal biodiversity, including threatened species like caribou, and culturally and economically important species like deer, elk and moose.

Walking the line: Investigating biophysical characteristics related to wildlife use of linear features

AbstractHabitat restoration is a necessary component of wildlife conservation in anthropogenic landscapes. To ensure restoration initiatives achieve the desired effects on wildlife communities, it is useful to investigate how animals use landscape features. Understanding the relationships between wildlife use and ecological cues provides specific and measurable targets that can be used to measure restoration success.In western Canada, linear feature networks formed by seismic lines, pipelines and roads have altered the boreal forest landscape and resulted in population declines for woodland caribou. Restoration is aimed at supporting caribou recovery by deterring linear feature use by caribou predators and ungulate competitors. Information on how linear feature characteristics facilitate or deter wildlife use supports restoration initiatives by providing specific targets for restoration.Here, we used wildlife track and sign data to investigate biophysical characteristics related to the use of linear features by canines, bears, deer, elk and moose in caribou ranges of west‐central and north‐western Alberta and British Columbia. We built generalized linear mixed models consistent with three hypotheses that could explain likely mechanisms for use: (1) ease of movement, (2) risk avoidance and (3) resource availability (prey and forage).Moose, deer, elk and bears were more likely to use linear features with either human or game trails. Bears and canines were less likely to use seismic lines with greater lateral vegetation cover and taller vegetation, respectively. Moose, deer and elk were more likely to use linear features with a greater cover of ungulate forage taxa such as willow, birch, sedges and forbs.These results suggest that restoration focusing on trails, online vegetation structure and online vegetation type should deter predators and ungulate prey species to the overall benefit of caribou. Our study corroborates the findings of other research recommending structural and functional restoration using high‐intensity line blocking and vegetative regeneration. We provide specific targets for linear feature restoration to assist in prioritization according to restoration objectives, which translates to a broader goal of linking local‐level restoration actions to landscape‐level conservation goals. This approach to restoration has implications for any major system experiencing anthropogenic landscape change.

Predator–prey co‐occurrence in harvest blocks: Implications for caribou and forestry

AbstractForest harvesting alters habitat, impacts wildlife, and disrupts ecosystem function. Across the boreal forest of Canada, forest harvesting affects ungulate prey species and their predators, with cascading impacts on other species, including threatened woodland caribou. We used camera and vegetation data and occupancy modeling to investigate what characteristics in and around forestry harvest blocks influenced the occupancy and co‐occurrence of primary prey (elk, moose, mule deer, white‐tailed deer) and predators (black bear, cougar, grizzly bear, wolf) in harvest blocks. Occupancy was linked to forage, the surrounding habitat and anthropogenic disturbance, and silviculture practices. Black and grizzly bear occupancy was influenced by the presence of deer, and bear–deer co‐occurrence was influenced by site‐specific silviculture practices and surrounding anthropogenic disturbance. In the context of caribou recovery, our results indicate that forestry within caribou ranges could consider site‐specific silviculture practices and landscape‐level planning to reduce use of harvest blocks by primary prey. Future caribou recovery efforts may also consider the roles of deer and bears in caribou predation risk. Our study provides the first insights into the impacts of forestry and silviculture on boreal forest predator–prey co‐occurrence and provides practical management applications to mitigate the impacts of anthropogenic activities on the boreal forest ecosystem into the future.

Predator control alters wolf interactions with prey and competitor species over the diel cycle

Predator control remains one of the most common strategies for the conservation of threatened prey species. Despite significant and ongoing efforts to reduce predator populations, little is known about the impacts on the behaviour and interactions of target and non‐target species following numerical and potentially behavioural suppression of predators. We used camera‐trap data collected before and after an intensive wolf control program in northeastern Alberta's boreal forest to evaluate changes in activity patterns and overlap in wolves, competitors and prey. We hypothesized wolves would shift their activity toward increased nocturnality to avoid diurnal control efforts, and thereby cause a behavioural cascade where other species shift activity to maintain temporal segregation from wolves. Wolves shifted activity into the nighttime following predator control, reducing temporal overlap with the other, mostly diurnal, members of the community. Decreases in activity overlap between wolves and other species indicates reduced potential for wolf interactions with ungulate prey and large competitor species. Predator control may therefore not only release species from top to down regulation and competition following numerical suppression of top predators, but also through de‐coupling of temporal overlap, with potential effects on species interactions. Understanding the indirect impacts of conservation strategies such as predator control on both target and non‐target species provides insight into potential disruptions to top–down regulation and the associated species interactions that shape community structure.

Cattle Grazing Effects on Vegetation and Wild Ungulates in the Forest Ecosystem of a National Park in Northeastern China

There is evidence that cattle grazing in forests limits big cat abundance. There is concern, too, about competition with wild ungulate prey through bottom-up effects on vegetation. Hence, there have been calls to remove or control forest livestock grazing in aid of restoring endangered large carnivores and their prey. To help inform scientific debate and decision making, we explored cattle-vegetation-prey dynamics in Northeast Tiger and Leopard National Park, northeast China and present a reappraisal of livestock grazing in the context of coexistence and an integrated approach to land use in China. Inside long-term forest grazing enclosures, wild boar (Sus scrofa) density increased with cattle density. Roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) density and occurrence probability of wild boar and roe deer were not influenced by cattle density. Wild ungulate densities were not related with the number of annual shoots, i.e., forage plant abundance. The presence/absence and abundance of annual shoots was not related with cattle density. Wild ungulate density had mixed associations with vegetation structure; arbor tree diameter at breast height (DBH) and habitat “openness” increased with cattle density. Finally, inside and outside enclosures had different vegetation characteristics and wild boar densities, while roe deer densities were equal. We conclude that cattle density and associated changes to vegetation have positive, negative, and neutral effects on two wild ungulate prey species. Each of these factors warrant consideration in evidence-based management decisions in regard to regulating ungulate community composition to support different large predators as preferred prey in core areas and corridors of habitats.

Habitat diversity influences puma Puma concolor diet in the Chihuahuan Desert

Habitat heterogeneity and corresponding diversity in potential prey species should increase the diet breadth of generalist predators. Many previous studies describing puma Puma concolor diets in the arid regions of the southwestern United States were focused within largely xeric locations, overlooking the influence of heterogeneity created by riparian forests. Such habitat heterogeneity and corresponding prey diversity could influence prey availability and puma diet composition. We examined seasonal prey composition of pumas occupying areas with different habitat conditions representing riparian areas adjacent to the Rio Grande and xeric Chihuahuan Desert uplands in southern New Mexico. We collected prey composition data from 686 kill sites made by 17 (9 males and 8 females) GPS-collared pumas from 2014 to 2018. Diet composition included 32 different avian, aquatic, small mammal, and ungulate prey species. Prey composition varied, with more ungulate prey consumed by pumas inhabiting the upland desert areas and more aquatic prey consumed in the riparian bosque. Prey composition differed between seasons, with ungulate prey decreasing and aquatic prey increasing during the hot–dry season. Prey composition also varied between puma sex and habitat with females in the desert uplands consuming more small mammals than either males or females in riparian areas. The diverse diets of the pumas inhabiting the heterogeneous landscapes in southern New Mexico provide additional evidence that pumas have broad diets that are strongly influenced by the habitat and prey community that their home range encompasses.

Wavelet methods reveal big cat activity patterns and synchrony of activity with preys.

Appropriate temporal and spatial scales are important prerequisites for obtaining reliable results in studies of wildlife activity patterns and interspecific interactions. The spread of camera-trap technology has increased interest in and feasibility of studying the activity patterns and interspecific interactions of wildlife. However, such studies are often conducted at arbitrary spatial and temporal scales, and the methods used impose scale on the study rather than determining how activity and species interactions change with spatial scale. In this study, we used a wavelet-based approach to determine the temporal and spatial scales for activity patterns and interspecific interactions on Amur leopard and their ungulate prey species that were recorded using camera traps in the main Amur leopard occurrence region in northeast China. Wavelets identified that Amur leopards were more active in spring and fall than summer, and fluctuated with periodicities of 9 and 17 days, respectively. Synchronous relationships between leopards and their prey commonly occurred in spring and fall, with a periodicity of about 20 days, indicating the appropriate seasons and temporal scales for interspecific interaction research. The influence of human activities on the activity patterns of Amur leopard or prey species often occurred over longer time periods (60-64 days). Two-dimensional wavelet analyses showed that interactions between leopard and prey were more significant at spatial scales of 1 km2 . Overall, our study provides a feasible approach to studying the temporal and spatial scales for wildlife activity patterns and interspecific interaction research using camera trap data.

Ecological Interactions Involving Feral Horses and Predators: Review with Implications for Biodiversity Conservation

ABSTRACTFor many ecosystems, feral horses are increasingly becoming an important if not dominant component of ungulate biomass and hence influence on community dynamics. Yet we still know little of how horses contribute to key ecological interactions including predator‐prey and indirect competitive relationships at a community level. Notably, feral species like horses can exhibit life‐history traits that differ from that of native (mainly artiodactyl) herbivore competitors. Artificial selection for traits like increased, early, or extended reproduction that have yet to be reversed by natural selection, coupled with naturally selected differences in anatomy and behavior, in addition to unique management objectives for horses compared to other species, means that the dynamics of feral horse populations are not likely to align with what might be expected of other large herbivores. Unexpected population dynamics and inherent biological asymmetries between native ungulates and feral horses may therefore influence the former via direct competition for shared resources and through enemy‐mediated interactions like apparent competition. In several localities feral horses now co‐exist with multiple native prey species, some of which are in decline or are species at risk. Compounding risks to native species from direct or indirect competitive exclusion by horses is the unique nature and socio‐political context of feral horse management, which tends towards allowing horse populations to be limited largely by natural, density‐dependent factors. We summarize the inherent asymmetries between feral horse biology and that of other ungulate prey species with consequences for conservation, focusing on predator‐prey and emerging indirect interactions in multi‐prey systems, and highlight future directions to address key knowledge gaps in our understanding of how feral horses may now be contributing to the (re)structuring of food webs. Observations of patterns of rapid growth and decline, and associated skews in sex ratios of feral horse populations, indicate a heightened potential for indirect interactions among large ungulate prey species, where there is a prevalence of feral horses as preferred prey, particularly where native prey are declining. In places like western North America, we expect predator‐prey interactions involving feral horses to become an increasingly important factor in the conservation of wildlife. This applies not only to economically or culturally important game species but also at‐risk species, both predators (e.g., wolves [Canis lupus], grizzly bears [Ursus arctos]) and prey (e.g., woodland caribou [Rangifer tarandus caribou]), necessitating an ecological understanding of the role of horses in natural environments that goes beyond that of population control. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.

Do pastoralist cattle fear African lions?

Fear of predators fundamentally shapes the ecology of prey species and drives both inter‐ and intra‐specific interactions. Extensive research has examined the consequences of predation risk from large carnivores on the behavior of wild ungulate prey species. However, many large carnivores not only hunt wild prey but also depredate domestic livestock, especially in pastoralist systems where livestock share land and resources with large carnivores. Northern Tanzania is a hotspot for human–carnivore conflict driven by livestock depredation and interactions are particularly severe between African lions Panthera leo and pastoralist cattle Bos taurus. In this ecosystem, we explored the degree to which pastoralist cattle exhibited anti‐predator behaviors during their daily grazing routines. Using focal animal sampling, we compared two typical anti‐predator behaviors, vigilance and grouping, among cattle in village rangelands with high and low background depredation rates. We found that cattle in high risk village rangelands formed 21.2% larger groups than cattle in low risk village rangelands. Interestingly, cattle in low risk village rangelands spent 68.4% more time vigilant than cattle in high risk village rangelands. These patterns were influenced significantly by the time of day: as sunset approached, cattle in low risk village rangelands spent more time vigilant and cattle in high risk village rangelands formed larger groups. These results suggest that pastoralist cattle exhibit anti‐predator strategies that vary both spatially and temporally, and that such strategies might help livestock optimally tradeoff the costs and benefits of anti‐predator behavior across timescales (i.e. the risk allocation hypothesis). We discuss the implications of our results for husbandry techniques that might reduce behavioral costs associated with cattle anti‐predator behaviors and help increase tolerance for lions and other large carnivores. These improvements are critical to human–carnivore coexistence given the prevalence of pastoralism globally and the rising potential for conflict with large carnivores such as lions.

Occupancy‐based monitoring of ungulate prey species in Thailand indicates population stability, but limited recovery

AbstractLongitudinal studies of wildlife are urgently needed in South‐East Asia to understand population responses to the high poaching pressure that characterizes this region. We monitored population trends and habitat use of five heavily poached ungulate species (gaur, sambar, wild pig, red muntjac, and Fea's muntjac) over five years in two protected areas in western Thailand using camera trap surveys. We used single‐season occupancy models to investigate effects of ecological and anthropological variables on ungulate distribution, and multi‐season models to assess occupancy dynamics over time. Occupancy of gaur and sambar was low (<0.25), but concentrated near saltlicks and at low elevations. Wild pig and muntjac occupancies were 3–4 times higher (0.60–0.80). Wild pig occupancy was lower near villages, but this effect dissipated in the final year of the study, coinciding with a purported decrease in poaching. Wild pig occupancy increased significantly, with the probability of colonizing new sites doubling from 0.40 to 0.81 over time. In contrast, occupancy rates of gaur, sambar, and muntjac did not grow, though they were stable. Poaching pressure during the study was low, perhaps allowing populations to stabilize. But only wild pig (the most resilient of the five species) increased. The failure of gaur and sambar to recover might stem from historical overhunting combined with ecological constraints, particularly low saltlick density. Recovery of ungulates (and the carnivores that depend on them) in overhunted South‐East Asian reserves might require intensive interventions, particularly habitat improvement and population augmentation, to achieve conservation objectives.

Deer density drives habitat use of establishing wolves in the Western European Alps

Abstract The return of top carnivores to their historical range triggers conflicts with the interests of different stakeholder groups. Anticipating such conflicts is key to appropriate conservation management, which calls for reliable spatial predictions of future carnivore occurrence. Previous models have assessed general habitat suitability for wolves, but the factors driving the settlement of dispersing individuals remain ill‐understood. In particular, little attention has been paid to the role of prey availability in the recolonization process. High spatial resolution and area‐wide relative densities of the wolf's main ungulate prey species (red deer, roe deer and chamois) were assessed from snow‐track surveys and modelled along with wolf presence data and other environmental descriptors to identify the main drivers of habitat selection of re‐establishing wolves in the Western European Alps. Prey species abundance was estimated from the minimum number of individuals recorded from snow‐tracks along two hundred and eighteen 1‐km transects surveyed twice a year during four successive winters (2012/2013–2015/2016). Abundance estimates per transect, corrected for species‐specific detection probabilities and averaged across winters, were used to model area‐wide relative prey density and biomass. Confirmed wolf observations during the same four winters were used to develop a spatially explicit habitat selection model for establishing wolves, based on our estimates of prey supply and other environmental descriptors of topography, land‐use and climate. Detection‐corrected ungulate prey abundances and modelled relative densities varied considerably in space (0–2.8, 1.3–4.5 and 0–6.3 per 50 ha in red deer, roe deer and chamois respectively; 1.3–11.65 pooled), while total predicted prey biomass ranged from 23 to 304 kg per 50 ha. Red deer density was the most important factor explaining wolf occurrence (31% contribution), followed by roe deer density (22%), winter precipitation (19%) and presence of game reserves (16%), showing that food supply, especially red deer as the most profitable prey in the Western Alps, was the main driver of winter habitat selection during the settlement phase. Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate the crucial importance of including accurate, fine‐grained information about prey supply for predicting recolonization patterns of carnivores and thus anticipating areas with potential human–wildlife conflicts where preventive measures should be prioritized.

Issues and Opportunities Associated with Trophy Hunting and Tourism in Khunjerab National Park, Northern Pakistan.

Simple SummaryTrophy hunting and mass tourism were introduced to Khunjerab National Park, northern Pakistan to generate income for the community and help conserve and sustain the ecosystem in the region. These initiatives have provided economic benefits, but only at the cost of other environmental problems, as both trophy hunting and mass tourism have resulted in various ecological issues. Trophy hunting has not been based on scientific population data and has thus not helped increase numbers of wild ungulates or wild carnivores. Although mass tourism has increased enormously in this region, it has damaged the ecosystem through pollution generation and negatively impacted wildlife. We suggest that trophy hunting should be stopped, and mass tourism should be shifted to ecotourism as a sustainable solution to help improve the ecosystem, while generating income for the local community. Further studies are required to investigate ecotourism as a potential mitigation measure for the conservation issues in this region.Trophy hunting and mass tourism are the two major interventions designed to provide various socioeconomic and ecological benefits at the local and regional levels. However, these interventions have raised some serious concerns that need to be addressed. This study was conducted in Khunjerab National Park (KNP) with an aim to analyze comparatively the socioeconomic and ecological impacts of trophy hunting and mass tourism over the last three decades within the context of sustainability. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with key stakeholders and household interviews were conducted to collect data on trophy hunting and mass tourism, and on local attitudes towards these two interventions in and around KNP. The results revealed that 170 Ibex (Capra sibirica) and 12 Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) were hunted in the study area over the past three decades, and trophy hunting was not based on a sustainable harvest level. Trophy hunting on average generated USD 16,272 annual revenue, which was invested in community development. However, trophy hunting has greatly changed the attitudes of local residents towards wildlife: a positive attitude towards the wild ungulates and strongly negative attitude towards wild carnivores. In addition, trophy hunting has reduced the availability of ungulate prey species for Snow leopards (Panthera uncia), and consequently, Snow leopards have increased their predation on domestic livestock. This has, in turn, increased human–snow leopard conflict, as negative attitudes towards carnivores result in retaliatory killing of Snow leopards. Furthermore, according to official record data, the number of tourists to KNP has increased tremendously by 10,437.8%, from 1382 in 1999 to 145,633 in 2018. Mass tourism on average generated USD 33,904 annually and provided opportunities for locals to earn high incomes, but it caused damages to the environment and ecosystem in KNP through pollution generation and negative impacts on wildlife. Considering the limited benefits and significant problems created by trophy hunting and mass tourism, we suggest trophy hunting should be stopped and mass tourism should be shifted to ecotourism in and around KNP. Ecotourism could mitigate human–Snow leopard conflicts and help conserve the fragile ecosystem, while generating enough revenue incentives for the community to protect biodiversity and compensate for livestock depredation losses to Snow leopards. Our results may have implications for management of trophy hunting and mass tourism in other similar regions that deserve further investigation.

A comparative analysis of hair morphology of wild and domestic ungulate prey species of Leopard Panthera pardus fusca (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) from Goa, India

Guard hairs were collected from four live domesticated ungulate species and shed guard hairs of six wild ungulate species from zoo captive animals from five individuals each. Photographic reference was prepared showing analytic features of hair characteristics. Study results were analysed and cuticle and medulla patterns were identified along with pigmentation features from the literature available for wild and domestic ungulates from India and abroad. Clear and easily distinguishable morphological characters of hair medulla and cuticle were used in the present study. Scat analysis of big cats used in this study is easy, speedy and efficient which can be used in routine investigations related to wildlife, crime forensics as well as human animal conflicts by studying carnivore feeding habits. In a majority of the animal species, the distal part of the hair showed maximum variation from the rest of the hair portions. The cuticle scales were imbricate in all tested animals. Scale position in almost all the tested animals was transversal except in goat (proximal part and medial part) and mouse deer (Distal part). Majority of the species showed smooth margins at proximal and medial part. Whereas the distal part scale margin was crenate and rippled in appearance the proximal part and medial part of hair of the majority of sampled animals showed a regular wave -type scale pattern whereas the distal part of hair showed irregular wave-type scale pattern in dominance. The composition of the medulla was multicellular in all the sampled deer species. Only the cow calf’s hair medulla was unicellular and uniseriate in appearance. A comparison of the hair of the domestic pig with that of the wild boar and gaur hair with that of cow calf and buffalo calf hair was made for the first time in the present study. Similarly goat hair morphology can also be differentiated from other cervids in this study. Medulla and cuticle characters in combination with each other can help differentiate wild ungulate species from the domestic ones since these wild ungulate species are frequently involved in hunting crime investigations. Therefore, the photographic reference presented in this study can be used in wildlife forensic science as well as predator diet analysis as an appropriate reference for prey species identification.

A viable tiger population in Similipal Tiger Reserve, India? Calculating if the ungulate prey base is limiting

Low ungulate density can be a factor in limiting tiger populations, so to better manage tiger reserves one must be able assess if this is the case or if other factors might be more important. Here, we quantify ungulate density in a tiger reserve in India, compare it to other reserves, and estimate the tiger carrying capacity in order to assess this reserve can support a viable tiger population. Specifically, we studied the Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR), Odisha, India, from 2011 to 2014. The line transect method was used to estimate population density of available major ungulate prey species, i.e. sambar Rusa unicolor, wild pig Sus scrofa, barking deer Muntiacus muntjac, chital Axis axis and mouse deer Moschiola indica. A remarkable increase in ungulate prey density was noted in the intensive study area over the study period from 4.3 animals per km2 in the pre-monsoon season of 2011 to 28.9 animals per km2 in the post-monsoon season of 2014. This estimated ungulate density is very low compared to other tiger reserves of India. Density figures of ungulates when multiplied with the average weight of the respective species gave a biomass density of 1599.4 kg km-2. This data was then used in two published empirical models to obtain estimates of tiger carrying capacity in STR. We used two empirical models from the published literature and concluded that the tiger carrying capacity of Similipal Tiger Reserve ranges between 1.3 and 3.8 tigers per 100 km2, much lower than our current estimates of tiger density. This suggests that the tiger population is below carrying capacity or that the estimated tiger population in critical tiger habitat falls below the threshold number. We suggest that the creation of large meadows for herbivores and the establishment of suitable fenced areas to augment breeding of the prey species chital and sambar are necessary to support a viable tiger population in the Similipal Tiger Reserve.