Unexpected Species Research Articles

The chemistry in clumpy AGB outflows

AbstractThe chemistry within the outflow of an AGB star is determined by its elemental C/O abundance ratio. Thanks to the advent of high angular resolution observations, it is clear that most outflows do not have a smooth density distribution, but are inhomogeneous or “clumpy”. We have developed a chemical model that takes into account the effect of a clumpy outflow on its gas-phase chemistry by using a theoretical porosity formalism. The clumpiness of the model increases the inner wind abundances of all so-called unexpected species, i.e. species that are not predicted to be present assuming an initial thermodynamic equilibrium chemistry. By applying the model to the distribution of cyanopolyynes and hydrocarbon radicals within the outflow of IRC+10216, we find that the chemistry traces the underlying density distribution.

Determining the effects of clumping and porosity on the chemistry in a non-uniform AGB outflow

Context. In the inner regions of asymptotic giant branch (AGB) outflows, several molecules have been detected with abundances much higher than those predicted from thermodynamic equilibrium chemical models. The presence of the majority of these species can be explained by shock-induced non-equilibrium chemical models, where shocks caused by the pulsating star take the chemistry out of equilibrium in the inner region. Moreover, a non-uniform density structure has been detected in several AGB outflows. Both large-scale structures, such as spirals and disks, and small-scale density inhomogeneities or clumps have been observed. These structures may also have a considerable impact on the circumstellar chemistry. A detailed parameter study on the quantitative effects of a non-homogeneous outflow has so far not been performed. Aims. We examine the effects of a non-uniform density distribution within an AGB outflow on its chemistry by considering a stochastic, clumpy density structure. Methods. We implement a porosity formalism for treating the increased leakage of light associated with radiation transport through a clumpy, porous medium. We then use this method to examine the effects from the altered UV radiation field penetration on the chemistry, accounting also for the increased reaction rates of two-body processes in the overdense clumps. The specific clumpiness is determined by three parameters: the characteristic length scale of the clumps at the stellar surface, the clump volume filling factor, and the inter-clump density contrast. In this paper, the clumps are assumed to have a spatially constant volume filling factor, which implies that they expand as they move outward in the wind. Results. We present a parameter study of the effect of clumping and porosity on the chemistry throughout the outflow. Both the higher density within the clumps and the increased UV radiation field penetration have an important impact on the chemistry, as they both alter the chemical pathways throughout the outflow. The increased amount of UV radiation in the inner region leads to photodissociation of parent species, releasing the otherwise deficient elements. We find an increased abundance in the inner region of all species not expected to be present assuming thermodynamic equilibrium chemistry, such as HCN in O-rich outflows, H2O in C-rich outflows, and NH3 in both. Conclusions. A non-uniform density distribution directly influences the chemistry throughout the AGB outflow, both through the density structure itself and through its effect on the UV radiation field. Species not expected to be present in the inner region of the outflow assuming thermodynamic equilibrium chemistry are now formed in this region, including species that are not formed in greater abundance by shock-induced non-equilibrium chemistry models. Outflows whose clumps have a large overdensity and that are very porous to the interstellar UV radiation field yield abundances comparable to those observed in O-rich and C-rich outflows for most of the unexpected species investigated. The inner wind abundances of H2O in C-rich outflows and of NH3 in O-rich and C-rich outflows are however underpredicted.

New or little known Sphodrina from Iran (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Sphodrini)

SummaryNotes are provided on some new, unexpected Sphodrina species from Iran, a country apparently well known from the entomological point of view. Notes on the species of Taphoxenus (Lychnifugus) of the Sphodrus phyletic lineage are added, with descriptions of Taphoxenus (Lychnifugus) elburzenis n. sp. (type locality: Iran, Elburz: Damavand Mt, 10 km W of Reine, 52°02ʹ24ʺE, 35°53ʹ22ʺN, 2200–2650 m) and Taphoxenus (Lychnifugus) murzini n. sp. (type locality: Iran, Fars: NW Sepidan, Poolad Kaf, 30°22ʹ01ʺN, 51°54ʹ00ʺE, 3100 m). Laemostenus (Arabosphodrus) laserae n. sp. (type locality: S Iran: Hormozgan, Genu Mts, N Bandar Abbas, 27°24ʹ04.5ʺN, 56°10ʹ49.6ʺE, 1680 m) is described. This species is particularly interesting, because it is the first representative of subgenus Arabosphodrus besides the type species of the subgenus, endemic to the mountains of North Oman. New records and illustrations of Laemostenus (Laemostenus) luristanus are provided, a little-known species from central Iran described from only two specimens. The diagnostic features of all species newly described are illustrated and their possible relationships are discussed.

Generic Workflow for Mapping of Complex Disulfide Bonds Using In-Source Reduction and Extracted Ion Chromatograms from Data-Dependent Mass Spectrometry.

Disulfide bond mapping is a critical task in protein characterization as protein stability, structure, and function is dependent on correct cysteine connectivities. Mass spectrometry (MS) is the method of choice for this, providing fast and accurate characterization of simple disulfide bonds. Disulfide mapping by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is performed by identifying disulfide-bonded partner peptides following proteolytic digestion. With the recently introduced ability to assign complex disulfide patterns by online postcolumn partial disulfide reduction by in-source reduction (ISR) in a LC-ISR-MS/MS methodology, the main challenge is data analysis to ensure detection of both expected and unexpected disulfide species. In this study, we introduced a workflow for confident and unbiased mapping of complex disulfide bonds using the powerful combination of extracted ion chromatograms (XICs) of LC-ISR-MS/MS data. With postcolumn partial reduction, identical LC retention times of intact disulfide-bonded species, their constituting free peptides, and partially reduced variants were observed. Subsequent selective MS/MS fragmentation of all reduction products allowed confident identification of free cysteine-containing peptides using a classical shotgun proteomics database search. Matching XICs of the identified cysteine-containing peptides allowed identification of both predicted and unpredicted disulfide species, including unforeseen proteolytic specificities, missed cleavage sites, scrambled disulfide variants, and the presence of disulfide-entangled complexes. Applying this workflow, we successfully mapped the complex disulfide bonds of tertiapin and the epidermal growth factor (EGF) family members transforming growth factor α (TGFα) and EGF. In addition, we were able to characterize the disulfide patterns of the special disulfide fold of the TGFβ superfamily in an all-online methodology.

An unexpected discovery of a new subgenus and a species of Plusiocampa (Campodeidae, Diplura) alongside an overview of Central European subterranean campodeids

An unexpected new subgenus and species of Campodeidae (Diplura), Plusiocampa (Pentachaetocampa) inopinata subgen. et sp. nov., a troglobitic species found in Schallsinger Höhle in an isolated karstic region in southwestern Germany is described. The new taxon shows two unique characters for the genus Plusiocampa: five dorsal femoral macrosetae and the presence of g1-glandular setae in females. Two other Plusiocampa species have been studied and taxonomic remarks made for them; both are also cave dwelling species from Germany: Plusiocampa dobati Condé in Dobat, 1975 studied from eight caves in the Swabian Alb, and one unnamed species of Plusiocampa (Plusiocampa) from four caves in the Franconian Alb. The biogeographical and taxonomic affinities among Plusiocampa species of Central Europe are discussed. The distribution of Plusiocampa species in Central Europe runs alongside the frontier of the Pleistocene glaciations, with non-troglomorphic Plusiocampa species adjacent to the glacial limits and troglomorphic Plusiocampa species below. Worthy of note is the presence only in the northeast of the Central Alps of two relict Plusiocampinae species, the already known Hystrichocampa pelletieri Condé, 1948 and the new species P. (P.) inopinata subgen. et sp. nov.

An unexpected discovery of a new subgenus and a species of Plusiocampa (Campodeidae, Diplura) alongside an overview of Central European subterranean campodeids

An unexpected new subgenus and species of Campodeidae (Diplura), Plusiocampa (Pentachaetocampa) inopinata subgen. et sp. nov., a troglobitic species found in Schallsinger Höhle in an isolated karstic region in southwestern Germany is described. The new taxon shows two unique characters for the genus Plusiocampa: five dorsal femoral macrosetae and the presence of g1-glandular setae in females. Two other Plusiocampa species have been studied and taxonomic remarks made for them; both are also cave dwelling species from Germany: Plusiocampa dobati Condé in Dobat, 1975 studied from eight caves in the Swabian Alb, and one unnamed species of Plusiocampa (Plusiocampa) from four caves in the Franconian Alb. The biogeographical and taxonomic affinities among Plusiocampa species of Central Europe are discussed. The distribution of Plusiocampa species in Central Europe runs alongside the frontier of the Pleistocene glaciations, with non-troglomorphic Plusiocampa species adjacent to the glacial limits and troglomorphic Plusiocampa species below. Worthy of note is the presence only in the northeast of the Central Alps of two relict Plusiocampinae species, the already known Hystrichocampa pelletieri Condé, 1948 and the new species P. (P.) inopinata subgen. et sp. nov.

Application of next generation semiconductor based sequencing for species identification and analysis of within-species mitotypes useful for authentication of meat derived products

In this study, we tested the Ion Torrent next generation semiconductor based sequencing technology for meat species identification in several highly processed and complex meat products and meat derived broths (a döner kebab, a beef/pork paté, a meat based filling of tortellini, one instantaneous granular preparation of broth stock made by meat and two ready to use meat broths from different producers). The detection protocol included the sequencing of targeted mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) regions amplified with universal primer pairs and a bioinformatic pipeline designed to interpret sequencing results. Six libraries were sequenced producing a total of 1,363,351 filtered reads. Data mining detected expected and unexpected meat species in the analysed products. Pork was identified in the kebab and Bubalus bubalis DNA was identified in the beef/pork paté. For products for which the precise meat species ingredient information was not available, it was possible to obtain it. Human contamination based on human detected reads could be useful to evaluate the hygienic level of highly processed products. Mitochondrial haplotypes (mitotypes) were identified for several mtDNA-species combinations providing another level of information useful for the authentication of meat derived products. This work defined a methodological framework to establish assays using this sequencing platform for routine species identification in complex and highly processed food.

Unexpected species diversity within Japanese Mundochthonius pseudoscorpions (Pseudoscorpiones : Chthoniidae) and the necessity for improved species diagnosis revealed by molecular and morphological examination

Using the complementary approaches of morphological and molecular taxonomy is essential to further our understanding of invertebrate diversity, including the identification of cryptic species. Although the species classification of a widespread group of arachnids, the pseudoscorpions, has been based on traditional diagnostic characters for a long time, recent taxonomic studies have suggested that some of these are unreliable for distinguishing species. Thus, the application of molecular taxonomy may be particularly useful in this group. Here, we performed molecular phylogenetic analyses and species delimitation analyses based on partial sequences of mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase I and nuclear DNA 18S rRNA genes to assess the taxonomy of species and the reliability of morphological characteristics for distinguishing species in the Japanese soil-dwelling genus Mundochthonius (Chthoniidae). Our results revealed the existence of seven major genetic clades, likely corresponding to three described species and four cryptic species. Although two described species, M. kiyoshii and M. itohi, were represented by single clades in the phylogenetic analysis, a third, M. japonicus, was composed of multiple clades, highlighting inconsistencies between phylogenetic relationships and current species classifications using traditional morphological diagnostics. This study exemplifies the need for further exploration of pseudoscorpion taxonomy and species diversity. In particular, detailed morphological examinations are expected to help determine differences among cryptic species.

Molecular evidence strongly supports deadwood-inhabiting fungi exhibiting unexpected tree species preferences in temperate forests

Wood-inhabiting fungi have essential roles in the regulation of carbon stocks and nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems. However, knowledge pertaining to wood-inhabiting fungi is only fragmentary and controversial. Here we established a large-scale deadwood experiment with 11 tree species to investigate diversity and tree species preferences of wood-inhabiting fungi using next-generation sequencing. Our results contradict existing knowledge based on sporocarp surveys and challenge current views on their distribution and diversity in temperate forests. Analyzing α-, β- and γ-diversity, we show that diverse fungi colonize deadwood at different spatial scales. Specifically, coniferous species have higher α- and γ-diversity than the majority of analyzed broadleaf species, but two broadleaf species showed the highest β-diversity. Surprisingly, we found nonrandom co-occurrence (P<0.001) and strong tree species preferences of wood-inhabiting fungi, especially in broadleaf trees (P<0.01). Our results indicate that the saprotrophic fungal community is more specific to tree species than previously thought.

African origin and global distribution patterns: Evidence inferred from phylogenetic and biogeographical analyses of ectomycorrhizal fungal genus Strobilomyces

AbstractAimThe ectomycorrhizal genus Strobilomyces is widely distributed throughout many parts of the world, but its origin, divergence and distribution patterns remain largely unresolved. In this study, we aim to explore the species diversity, distribution and evolutionary patterns of Strobilomyces on a global scale by establishing a general phylogenetic framework with extensive sampling.LocationAfrica, Australasia, East Asia, Europe, North America, Central America and Southeast Asia.MethodsThe genealogical concordance phylogenetic species recognition method was used to delimit phylogenetic species. Divergence times were estimated using a Bayesian uncorrelated lognormal relaxed molecular clock. The ancestral area and host of Strobilomyces were inferred via the programs rasp and mesquite. The change of diversification rate over time was estimated using Ape, Laser and Bammtools software packages.ResultsWe recognize a novel African clade and 49 phylogenetic species with morphological evidence, including 18 new phylogenetic species and 23 previously described ones. Strobilomyces probably originated in Africa, in association with Detarioideae/Phyllanthaceae/Monotoideae during the early Eocene. The dispersal to Southeast Asia can be explained by Wolfe's “Boreotropical migration” hypothesis. East Asia, Australasia, Europe and North/Central America are primarily the recipients of immigrant taxa during the Oligocene or later. A rapid radiation implied by one diversification shift was inferred within Strobilomyces during the Miocene.Main conclusionsAn unexpected phylogenetic species diversity within Strobilomyces was uncovered. The highest diversity, resulting probably from a rapid radiation, was found in East Asia. Dispersal played an important role in the current distribution pattern of Strobilomyces. The Palaeotropical disjunction is explained by species dispersal from Africa to Southeast Asia through boreotropical forests during the early Eocene. Species from the Northern Hemisphere and Australasia are largely derived from immigrant ancestors from Southeast Asia.

Direct formation of new water soluble Re and Tc complexes containing PTA (1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane) from their permetallated salts. Reactivity and X-ray crystal structures

A new one-pot synthetic procedure to new water-soluble rhenium and technetium complexes, directly from the corresponding permetallated species, is here presented. The new water-soluble M(IV) and M(III), (M=Re, Tc) paramagnetic complexes were obtained by treating [MO4]− with an excess of PTA (1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane), in water. In the presence of SnCl2, the complexes [MCl3(PTA)3]Cl, (M=Re, 1; Tc, 3), were obtained in good yield, while in the absence of SnCl2 the unexpected species containing methylated PTA, [MCl4(PTA-Me)2]Cl, (M=Re, 2; Tc, 4), were produced. A preliminary study of the reactivity of these products with N,N-diethyldithiocarbamate was also carried out: the diamagnetic binuclear μ-oxo species [M2O3(Et2NCS2)4] (M=Re, 6; Tc, 7) were isolated from the reactions of 1, 2 and 4 with dithiocarbamate. The reaction of 3 gave rise to an unusual epta-coordinated technetium(III) complex [Tc(Et2NCS2)3(PTA)] (5). The X-ray crystal structures of the new PTA complexes 2, 4, 5 and 7 have been determined.

The Investigation of Unexpected Arsenic Compounds Observed in Routine Biological Monitoring Urinary Speciation Analysis.

This study investigates the identity of two unexpected arsenic species found separately in a number of urine samples sent to the Health and Safety Executive’s Health and Safety Laboratory for arsenic speciation (arsenobetaine, AB; arsenite, As3+; arsenate, As5+; monomethylarsonic acid, MMA5+; and dimethylarsinic acid, DMA5+). Micro liquid chromatography coupled to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (µLC-ICP-MS) and electrospray time of flight tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-QqTOF-MS/MS) were used to identify the two arsenic peaks by comparison to several characterized arsenicals: arsenocholine, AC; trimethyl arsine oxide, TMAO; dimethylarsenoacetate, DMAA; dimethylarsenoethanol, DMAE; thio-dimethylarsinate, thio-DMA; thio-dimethylarsenoacetate, thio-DMAA and thio-dimethylarsenoethanol, thio-DMAE. The results from both the ICP-MS and ESI-QqTOF-MS/MS investigations indicate that the unexpected arsenic species termed peak 1 was thio-DMA. While the unexpected arsenic species termed peak 2 has yet to be identified, this investigation shows that it was not AC, TMAO, DMAA, DMAE, thio-DMA, thio-DMAA or thio-DMAE. This study demonstrates the incidence of unexpected arsenic species in both routine and non-routine urine samples from both workers and hospital patients.

Unexpected high species diversity among European stalked puffballs – a contribution to the phylogeny and taxonomy of the genus Tulostoma (Agaricales)

A three-gene data set was generated to explore species diversity and delimitations within the stalked puffballs (Tulostoma, Agaricales) in Europe. Data on species from other parts of the world were included for comparison of species concepts and distribution ranges. Sequence data from 26 type specimens are included. The phylogenetic analyses support Tulostoma as monophyletic. Eleven major clades, 37 minor clades, and 20 single branches were recovered and found to correspond to 30 described species and 27 species without scientific names. Five species are here described as new to science: Tulostoma calcareum, T. calongei, T. eckbladii, T. grandisporum, and T. pannonicum. In total we report 26 described, and 19 undescribed, species from Europe. An epitype for T. fimbriatum with ITS sequence data is selected to fix the name. The recovered tree topology was not in congruence with the current infrageneric classification of Tulostoma, suggesting that many of the morphological characters used for segregation of taxa are plesiomorphic or homoplasious. Spore ornamentation and hyphal structure of the peridium are found to bereliable characters for delimitation of species.

Unique Ruthenium Bimetallic Supramolecular Cages From C4-Symmetric Tetrapyridyl Metalloligands.

The self-assembly of C4-symmetric tetrapyridyl metalloligands containing Fe or Co and diruthenium electron acceptors by means of dative coordination bonding led to the formation of six different heterobimetallic supramolecules. All complexes were characterized by X-ray crystallography, ESI mass spectrometry, and 1H NMR (in the case of diamagnetic systems) spectroscopy. The bridging units in the diruthenium complexes greatly influenced the geometrical preference of the supramolecular structures, resulting in the formation of different architectures, namely A4D2 or A6D3 (A = acceptor, D = donor). Depending on the bridging unit, A4D2 tetragonal prism, A4D2 molecular tweezer, or A6D3 triple-decker complexes were obtained selectively. The self-assembly of an unexpected triple-decker type Ru12Fe3 heterobimetallic species was also observed.

Determining the effect of a non-uniform AGB outflow on its chemistry

AbstractThe molecular composition of the stellar outflows of AGB stars is determined by the stellar elemental carbon-to-oxygen abundance ratio, together with the physical circumstances in the innermost region of the outflow. Near the stellar surface, thermal equilibrium (TE) can be assumed. This leads to a certain molecular composition with a O- or C-rich signature. However, several molecular species have been detected that are not expected to be present in the inner region under the assumption of TE chemistry. As a solution to explain the presence of these unexpected species, non-equilibrium chemistry in the inner region of the outflow has been proposed. The outflows of AGB stars are generally not spherically symmetric or homogeneous, which influences the penetration of interstellar UV photons throughout the outflow. We investigate the effect of a clumpy, non-homogeneous outflow on the composition of the inner region by introducing a simple porosity formalism in our chemical model.

Advancing taxonomy and bioinventories with DNA barcodes.

We use three examples—field and ecology-based inventories in Costa Rica and Papua New Guinea and a museum and taxonomic-based inventory of the moth family Geometridae—to demonstrate the use of DNA barcoding (a short sequence of the mitochondrial COI gene) in biodiversity inventories, from facilitating workflows of identification of freshly collected specimens from the field, to describing the overall diversity of megadiverse taxa from museum collections, and most importantly linking the fresh specimens, the general museum collections and historic type specimens. The process also flushes out unexpected sibling species hiding under long-applied scientific names, thereby clarifying and parsing previously mixed collateral data. The Barcode of Life Database has matured to an essential interactive platform for the multi-authored and multi-process collaboration. The BIN system of creating and tracking DNA sequence-based clusters as proxies for species has become a powerful way around some parts of the ‘taxonomic impediment’, especially in entomology, by providing fast but testable and tractable species hypotheses, tools for visualizing the distribution of those in time and space and an interim naming system for communication.This article is part of the themed issue ‘From DNA barcodes to biomes’.

Characterization of N-Succinylation of L-Lysylphosphatidylglycerol in Bacillus subtilis Using Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

Phospholipids generally dominate in bacterial lipids. The negatively charged nature of phospholipids renders bacteria susceptible to cationic antibiotic peptides. In comparison with Gram-negative bacteria, Gram-positive bacteria in general have much less zwitterionic phosphatidylethanolamine. However, they are known for producing aminoacylated phosphatidylglycerol (PG), especially positively charged L-lysyl-PG, which is catalyzed by lysyl-PG synthase MprF, which appears to have a broad range of specificity for L-aminoacyl transfer RNAs. In addition, many Gram-positive bacteria also have a dlt-gene-coded D-alanylation pathway for lipoteichoic acids and wall teichoic acids covalently attached to a glycolipid or peptidoglycan. D-Alanylation also masks the dominant negative charge of the phosphate-rich polymers of teichoic acids. Using mass spectrometry, we have recently observed that precursor scans in negative mode for deprotonated amino acid fragments were most sensitive for ester-linked amino acids. Such a scan for precursors generating an m/z 145 lysyl anion revealed lysyl-PG as well as an additional species 100 m/z units greater than lysyl-PG. This unexpected species corresponded precisely to the expected mass of N-succinylated lysyl-PG. Tandem mass spectrometry revealed a precise match to the fragmentation pattern of this putative new species. PG, lysyl-PG, and N-succinyl-lysyl-PG may form a complete loop of charge reversal from -1 to +1 and then back to -1. Analogous charge reversal by N-succinylation of lysine residues in the bacterial as well as eukaryotic proteomes has been recently discovered as a major posttranslational modification. Such modification in bacterial lipids is possibly catalyzed by an enzyme homologous to the enzymes that modify lysine residues in proteins. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

Forms: Whole, Rhythm, Hierarchy, Network Misfit Forms: Paths Not Taken by the British Novel What Lies Between: Void Aesthetics and Postwar Post-Politics

Forms: Whole, Rhythm, Hierarchy, Network Misfit Forms: Paths Not Taken by the British Novel What Lies Between: Void Aesthetics and Postwar Post-Politics

Evaluating the efficacy of restoration plantings through DNA barcoding of frugivorous bird diets.

Frugivores are critical components of restoration programs because they are seed dispersers. Thus, knowledge about bird-plant trophic relationships is essential in the evaluation of the efficacy of restoration processes. Traditionally, the diet of frugivores is characterized by microscopically identifying plant residues in droppings, which is time-consuming, requires botanical knowledge, and cannot be used for fragments lacking detectable morphological characteristics (e.g., fragmented seeds and skins). We examined whether DNA barcoding can be used as a universal tool to rapidly characterize the diet of a frugivorous bird, Eurasian blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla). We used the DNA barcoding results to assess restoration efforts and monitor the diversity of potentially dispersed plants in a protected area in northern Italy. We collected 642 Eurasian Blackcap droppings at the restored site during the autumn migration over 3 years. Intact seeds and fragmented plant material were analyzed at 2 plastidial barcode loci (rbcL and trnH-psbA), and the resulting plant identifications were validated by comparison with a reference molecular data set of local flora. At least 17 plant species, including 7 of the 11 newly transplanted taxa, were found. Our results demonstrate the potential for DNA barcoding to be used to monitor the effectiveness of restoration plantings and to obtain information about fruit consumption and dispersal of invasive or unexpected plant species. Such an approach provides valuable information that could be used to study local plant biodiversity and to survey its evolution over time.

Using ToF-SIMS to study industrial surface phenomena

Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) is frequently used to analyze industrial samples since it offers high (ppb) detection sensitivity, very high surface specificity (analysis of the top 1–3 surface layers during a spectral/image acquisition), high mass resolution (allowing the analyst the ability to separate Cu from C5H3 for instance), the ability to detect hydrogen, high depth resolution for depth profile measurements, and detection of high-mass fragments associated with molecular species/additives. In this manuscript, we demonstrate the advantages of ToF-SIMS including the ability to measure trace quantities of unexpected species on the surfaces of devices, and the ability to extract high-mass resolution information from data sets which were collected at degraded mass resolution. The importance of applying unbiased multivariate statistical analysis (MVSA) to the complete set of measured data is also demonstrated.