Unequal Gender Norms Research Articles

Pornography Use and Perceived Gender Norms Among Young Adolescents in Urban Poor Environments: A Cross-site Study

PurposeThe purpose of the study is to assess the prevalence of pornography use and its association with a range of perceived gender norms among adolescents aged 10–14 years across five urban poor settings globally. MethodsThe study includes 9,250 adolescents aged 10–14 years from Belgium, China, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, and Indonesia, as part of the Global Early Adolescent Study. We examined the percentage of pornography use by sex and site and conducted multivariate logistic regressions to examine the relation between gender norm perceptions and pornography use, adjusting for individual, family, peer, and media exposures. ResultsEver-use of pornography ranged from 14.5% in Ecuador to 33.0% in Belgium and was more common among boys than girls. Overall, boys who perceived greater permissiveness about romantic relations, adolescents who engaged in such relations, and adolescents who assumed that their friends were sexually active had greater pornography exposure. Pornography use did not systematically correlate with unequal gender norms. Such correlations only exist among boys in two Asian sites, where a supportive school environment, more caregiver awareness, and/or neighborhood cohesion were related to less pornography use. ConclusionsPornography use is a gendered experience that begins in early adolescence. Although factors of pornography use vary across the social context, the exposure to pornography has become a normative part of adolescent sexuality development. Young people, especially those from where sexuality remains taboo, need the ability to critically process information and avoid potential risks associated with pornographic gendered and sexual stereotypes, calling for comprehensive sexuality education programs to help them build the knowledge and confidence they need.

Unequal Gender Norms Are Related to Symptoms of Depression Among Young Adolescents: A Cross-Sectional, Cross-Cultural Study

PurposeThis study was undertaken among 10- to 14-year-old girls and boys in disadvantaged areas of Shanghai, China; Cuenca, Ecuador; Flanders, Belgium; and Denpasar and Semarang, Indonesia. It aimed to assess whether gender norms are related to depressive symptomatology, and to examine whether sex differences in depressive symptoms can be explained by differences in gender norm perceptions. MethodsWe examined the distributions of depressive symptoms and two gender norms scales, gender stereotypical traits (GST), and sexual double standard (SDS), across sites and by sex. We next assessed crude and adjusted associations between each of the gender norms scales and depressive symptoms. Finally, we conducted path analysis to examine the mediating role of gender perceptions in sex differences in depressive symptoms. ResultsGirls reported more depressive symptoms than boys in all sites except Denpasar. SDS perceptions were more unequal among girls in most sites, while GST perceptions were more unequal among boys in all sites except Semarang. Gender-equal SDS and GST perceptions were associated with fewer depressive symptoms, while unequal perceptions were related to more symptoms. Gendered perceptions about traits and relationships appeared to partially mediate relationships between sex and depressive symptoms in Shanghai, Cuenca, and Semarang. ConclusionsUnequal gender norm perceptions were linked to poor mental health among boys and girls, suggesting that gender norms may play a role in psychological wellbeing for adolescents of both sexes. Gender norm perceptions appear to play a role in mental health sex disparities we observed across sites.

Gender Equality but Never-Ending Inequity in FATA, Pakistan

Purpose: Conventional wisdom in women development generally supports the link between acceptance of unequal gender norms, which is reflective of their work participation rate, and income gaps. While this link is intuitive in the literature, the presumed impact beyond merely women empowerment, including women's socio-economic development, while lacking sufficient evidence for the case of FATA (Pakistan). This inhand study devolves on the factors which may have promising impact towards women empowerment, consisting upon a sample data of 962 female from secondary data sources i.e. PDHS 2017-18.
 Design/Methodology/Approach: Survey based data of PDHS 2017-18 was used in this study. Moreover, Binomial Logistic Regression is applied as an econometric technique.
 Findings: The disaggregated results confirm that women in FATA are less benefited as compared to men, particularly when it comes to financial status; affecting their household decision making and adding miseries to their socio-economic conditions. Not only that, the persistent gender gap in this region also shares a prominent link with their age, education, exposure to media, fertility preference and employment status.
 Implications/Originality/Value: Lastly, the study scientifically concludes that access to education and employment is the only enabling factor to women's empowerment and achievement towards their socio-economic goals. On the same hand, above much depends on the attitude of the people towards gender equality, which may require intensive social reforms to change their behaviors.

Adolescent condom use in Southern Africa: narrative systematic review and conceptual model of multilevel barriers and facilitators

BackgroundAdolescent HIV and pregnancy rates in Southern Africa are amongst the highest in the world. Despite decades of sexual and reproductive health (SRH) programming targeting adolescents, recent trends suggest there is a continued need for interventions targeting condom use for this age group.MethodsThis review synthesises evidence from qualitative studies that describe the determinants of condom use among adolescents in Southern Africa. We conducted systematic searches in four databases. Data were extracted, appraised for quality and analysed using a ‘best-fit’ framework synthesis approach.ResultsWe coded deductively findings from 23 original studies using an a priori framework and subsequently conducted thematic analysis. Synthesised findings produced six key themes relating to: 1) pervasive unequal gender norms and restrictive masculinities favouring male sexual decision-making and stigmatising condom use in committed relationships; 2) other social norms reflecting negative constructions of adolescent sexuality and non-traditional family planning; 3) economic and political barriers including poverty and a lack of policy support for condom use; 4) service-level barriers including a lack of youth-friendly SRH services and comprehensive sex education in schools; 5) interpersonal barriers and facilitators including unequal power dynamics in sexual partnerships, peer influences and encouraging condoning condom use, and inadequate communication about SRH from parents/caregivers; and 6) negative attitudes and beliefs about condoms and condom use among adolescents. A conceptual model was generated to describe determinants of condom use, illustrating individual-, interpersonal- and structural-level barriers and facilitating factors.ConclusionSRH programming targeting barriers and facilitators of condom use at multiple levels is recommended in Southern Africa. We present a multilevel integrated model of barriers and facilitators to guide adolescent SRH decision-making, programme planning and evaluation. Given the existence of multilevel barriers and facilitators, interventions should, likewise, take a multilevel approach that incorporates locally relevant understanding of the individual-, interpersonal- and structural-level barriers and facilitators to condom use among adolescents in the region.

Lifestyles, sexuality and gender: vulnerability to STIs and unplanned pregnancy among female migrant beer promoters in Lao PDR

In Southeast Asia, many young rural female migrants supplement their income by working as beer promoters. This study examined how young, female beer promoters working in Vientiane Capital, Lao PDR, navigate intimate relations and sexual encounters and how their experiences create sexual vulnerabilities. A total of 30 female beer promoters aged 18-24 years old were recruited using snowball sampling. Repeated face-to-face in-depth interviews were undertaken and thematic analysis conducted to identify common themes. Most participants had their first coital experience pre-migration but living in the city introduced them to a larger pool of potential partners. Unprotected sexual intercourse was common, with young women usually deferring to their male partners preference for non-condom use. Working as beer promoters, the sexualised environment of the bar room promoted male ideals of femininity and exposed the young women to sexual harassment. While the young women used various strategies to assert their autonomy, and challenge unequal gender norms, the prevailing male hegemony acted to subvert female sexual agency. Leveraging young urban migrants’ desire to complete education, live independently and postpone motherhood may provide opportunities to examine and challenge gender norms and harmful practices.

PROTOCOL: Involving men and boys in family planning: A systematic review of the effective components and characteristics of complex interventions in low- and middle-income countries.

PROTOCOL: Involving men and boys in family planning: A systematic review of the effective components and characteristics of complex interventions in low- and middle-income countries.

Leaving no one behind: using action research to promote male involvement in maternal and child health in Iringa region, Tanzania

IntroductionMale involvement has been reported to improve maternal and child health (MCH) outcomes. However, most studies in low-income and middle-income countries have reported low participation of men in MCH-related programmes....

Dismantling Restrictive Gender Norms: Can Better Designed Paternal Leave Policies Help?

AbstractDespite global commitments and efforts, women's equality, particularly at work, has still not been fully realized. Here, we examine whether improved parental leave policies, implemented at the national level, that encourage fathers to participate in caregiving can be effective at reducing unequal gender norms surrounding work. We use data from 1995–2018 that are nationally representative for nine countries, and employ a difference‐in‐differences approach to estimate the effect that changing parental leave policies has on attitudes towards women's work. Our results indicate that changes to parental leave policy that incentivize or encourage fathers to take time off are associated with improvements in attitudes towards women's equality in the workplace. Specifically, we find that incentives for paternal leave stimulates egalitarian changes in attitudes among both men and women. Our study is the first to longitudinally investigate whether parental leave policies can influence gender equitable norms and our findings support the notion that egalitarian changes in policy can improve gender norms.

Moving beyond individual barriers and identifying multi-level strategies to reduce anemia in Odisha India

BackgroundTo reduce the prevalence of anemia, the Indian government recommends daily iron and folic acid supplements (iron supplements) for pregnant women and weekly iron supplements for adolescents and all women of reproductive age. The government has distributed free iron supplements to adolescents and pregnant women for over four decades. However, initial uptake and adherence remain inadequate and non-pregnant women of reproductive age are largely ignored. The aim of this study is to examine the multilevel barriers to iron supplement use and to subsequently identify promising areas to intervene.MethodsWe conducted a qualitative study in the state of Odisha, India. Data collection included key informant interviews, focus group discussions with women, husbands, and mothers-in-law, and direct observations in health centers, pharmacies and village health and nutrition days.ResultsWe found that at the individual level, participants knew that iron supplements prevent anemia but underestimated anemia prevalence and risk in their community. Participants also believed that taking too many iron supplements during pregnancy would “make your baby big” causing a painful birth and a costly cesarean section. At the interpersonal level, mothers-in-law were not supportive of their daughters-in-law taking regular iron supplements during pregnancy but husbands were more supportive. At the community level, participants reported that only pregnant women and adolescents are taking iron supplements, ignoring non-pregnant women altogether. Unequal gender norms are also an upstream barrier for non-pregnant women to prioritize their health to obtain iron supplements. At the policy level, frontline health workers distribute iron supplements to pregnant women only and do not follow up on adherence.ConclusionsInterventions should address multiple barriers to iron supplement use along the socio-ecological model. They should also be tailored to a woman’s reproductive life course stage: adolescents, pregnancy, and non-pregnant women of reproductive age because social norms and available services differ between the subpopulations.

‘After they finish their meals, I have my meal from the leftovers; I have to adjust:” Examining How Gender Norms Affect Anemia Rates in Odisha India (P04-122-19)

ObjectivesHalf of women of reproductive age in India have iron deficiency anemia compared to only 23% of men. Most research focuses on biological reasons for this discrepancy and access to iron-folic acid and iron-rich foods. However, recent research in India shows that inequitable gender norms may affect a woman’s ability or desire to take iron supplements and to eat iron-rich food. The objective of this study is to examine how and why gender norms may be affecting high and persistent rates of anemia in India. MethodsWe conducted 25 key informant interviews and 16 focus group discussions with women of reproductive age, adolescents, husbands and mothers-in-law (n = 148) in Odisha, India. We purposively sampled key informants and randomly sampled focus group participants. We analyzed the data using applied thematic analysis in Nvivo software. ResultsOur data shows that unequal gender norms impact behaviors that are directly related to high rates of anemia. Women are often serving their husband, children, and in-laws first and “adjusting” to whatever is leftover which may be poor in nutritional qualities and less iron rich. Men are also the main breadwinners but often spend their money on alcohol, money that could be spent on iron-rich food for the household. Women reported that extreme fatigue is a normal part of being a woman and that a woman’s plight is to take care of her family at any cost. Given that fatigue, the primary symptom of anemia is normalized; women may be less likely to seek treatment. Women tend to prioritize the health of their family over her own which could affect her ability or desire to go to the health center to get tested for anemia or to obtain iron supplements. Pregnant women are more likely to take iron supplements for the health of the baby, not her own health. While non-pregnant women of reproductive age who were not diagnosed with anemia were not focused on preventive health, only major illnesses and thus, were not taking supplements at all. ConclusionsMore upstream barriers, like gender norms, may be impinging on a woman’s ability to take iron folic acid and to eat iron rich foods. Understanding how gender norms contribute to anemia could change the narrative from a biomedical issue to a social justice issue. Funding SourcesThe Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Supporting Tables, Images and/or Graphs▪

Sex work and condom use in Soweto, South Africa: a call for community-based interventions with clients

Despite public health interventions targeting sex workers in an attempt to increase condom use, HIV still remains a significant health issue for those involved in the sex industry in many countries. In this paper, we analyse data collected as part of an ethnographic study of sex work in Soweto, South Africa. We show that the main problems with consistent condom use are clients who threaten violence if sex workers insist on condoms, clients who are ‘rough’ and refuse to stop intercourse when the condom breaks, and clients who offer to pay more money for unprotected sex. These issues relate to unequal gender norms that disempower female sex workers and dismiss the importance of consent in sexual relationships. The criminalisation of sex work increases vulnerability and reduces sex workers’ agency as sex workers are reluctant to report crimes committed against them. Persistent ‘whore stigma’ adds to this dynamic by dehumanising sex workers. In conclusion, we advocate for decriminalisation and posit that public health interventions aimed at increasing condom use and reducing HIV rates need to specifically engage clients, address unequal gender norms and involve local communities to tackle stigma directed against sex workers.

A comparative study on women empowerment in urban and rural setting in Tamil Nadu

Background: Women empowerment is vital for decision making on nutrition, health-seeking, family planning and economic issues for the family as a whole. In reality, there is prevalence of unequal gender norms among the women in India in urban and rural area. The objective of the study was to compare the empowerment of women in urban and rural setting in Tamil Nadu.Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in Nandivaram (RHTC) and Shenoy Nagar (UHTC) attached to Government Kilpauk Medical College among 200 married women of age 15-49 years with a semi-structured questionnaire during June 2018. Data was entered and analyzed in SPSS 16. Chi Square test and logistic regression was used for statistical analysis.Results: Mean age in rural group was 26.74±6.45 years and 30.4±7.35 in urban. Illiterates were 27% in rural and 14% in urban. About 67% were homemakers in rural vs. 43% in urban. About 33% were BPL in rural vs. 21% in urban. Decision making regarding household decisions, about73% in rural vs. 87% urban had participated. In health seeking behavior, 77 % in rural had no say while only 45% in urban. For Family planning, 33% in rural vs. 74% in urban had decision making which were statistically significant. Only 33% contributed to family income in rural vs. 47% in urban.Conclusions: Women empowerment is better in urban setting than rural setting. There is a strong need to create awareness and training in rural setting for better productive life.

“Stop the War on Women’s Bodies”: Facilitating a Girl-Led March Against Sexual Violence in a Rural Community in South Africa

Internationally, there is increasing recognition that girls and young women are engaged in various forms of resistance and activism to address social issues that impact their lives. However, in contexts that are hostile to girls and young women due to unequal gender norms, girls are often silenced, and activism is met with disapproval and even violence. Where activism does occur, the voices of girls and young women engaged therein are often ignored. It is for this reason that adult activists often team up with and support girls and young women’s activism at the community level. In a rural community in South Africa, adult researchers and activists from a university worked with participating girls and young women to address sexual violence in the community. Within this collaborative project to commemorate the annual National Women’s Day, and with the assistance of the adult researchers, the participants organized an awareness march against sexual violence in their community. This article examines this intergenerational collaboration and the role of adult feminists in enabling girls’ voices to be heard regarding their experiences of sexual violence and how it might be addressed. The article concludes that in contexts where unequal gender norms produce high rates of gender-based violence, including sexual violence against girls and young women, girl-led activism is likely to occur with the support of adult activists with access to resources, and whose skills and relative authority gives them access to decision-makers and policy makers in communities and organizations.

Women (Not) Troubling “the Family”: Exploring Women’s Narratives of Gendered Family Practices

This article is concerned with examining the ways in which young women make choices about their family lives and in so doing reproduce traditional unequal gender norms and family practices. In a time when it is (supposedly) increasingly easy to live alternative lives (living apart together, for example), a significant number of young people continue to marry and live together in heteronormative family units. By exploring the narratives produced in interviews with 22 young, heterosexual British women, this article aims to understand why unequal gender norms continue to guide behavior regarding sexuality in relationships, name-changing on marriage, and household divisions of labor. Exploring how decisions are made in a bricolage of reflexive, habitual, and taken-for-granted ways, this article concludes that by piecing together ideas from past and present, constraint is reconfigured as choice in order to provide legitimacy and power over life decisions bounded by gendered expectations and inequalities.

Transnationally relocated? Sex selection among Punjabis in Canada

ABSTRACTThis exploration of the dynamics of son preference and daughter aversion among Punjabis in Canada uses interviews and a survey to augment voices across different generations of Punjabi women and men in Brampton, Ontario. Hierarchies of age, gender, patriarchal control and strong transnational kin ties intersect in allowing older generation immigrants to exert stronger influence on factors underlying son preference and daughter aversion in a context of socio-economic and cultural discrimination against Punjabis. Young Punjabi women and men are challenging unequal gender norms within the Punjabi community even as they create their own sub-culture appropriating Punjabi and wider Canadian cultures.

Addressing harmful and unequal gender norms in early adolescence

Early adolescence (age 10–14) is an important window of opportunity to address gender socialization as the basis for health and social justice. This Comment explains why this is the case and provides illustrative examples of existing evidence on strategies to promote gender equitable attitudes in young adolescents.

"Girls Have More Challenges; They Need to Be Locked Up": A Qualitative Study of Gender Norms and the Sexuality of Young Adolescents in Uganda.

Unequal power and gender norms expose adolescent girls to higher risks of HIV, early marriages, pregnancies and coerced sex. In Uganda, almost half of the girls below the age of 18 are already married or pregnant, which poses a danger to the lives of young girls. This study explores the social construction of gender norms from early childhood, and how it influences adolescents’ agency. Contrary to the mainstream theory of agency, which focuses on the ability to make informed choices, adolescents’ agency appears constrained by context-specific obstacles. This study adopted qualitative research approaches involving 132 participants. Of these, 44 were in-depth interviews and 11 were focus group discussions, parcelled out into separate groups of adolescents (12–14 years), teachers, and parents (n = 88), in Western Uganda. Data were analysed manually using open and axial codes, and conclusions were inductive. Results show that gender norms are established early in life, and have a very substantial impact on the agency of young adolescents. There were stereotypical gender norms depicting boys as sexually active and girls as restrained; girls’ movements were restricted; their sexual agency constrained; and prevention of pregnancy was perceived as a girl’s responsibility. Programs targeting behavioural change need to begin early in the lives of young children. They should target teachers and parents about the values of gender equality and strengthen the legal system to create an enabling environment to address the health and wellbeing of adolescents.

Protocol for a systematic review: Interventions addressing men, masculinities and gender equality in sexual and reproductive health: An evidence and gap map and systematic review of reviews.

Protocol for a systematic review: Interventions addressing men, masculinities and gender equality in sexual and reproductive health: An evidence and gap map and systematic review of reviews.

Transforming Social Ecologies to Enable Resilience Among Girls and Young Women in the Context of Sexual Violence

Exacerbated by the unequal gender norms and practices that characterise the social ecologies in which individuals and groups negotiate their lives, sexual violence and coercive sex are pressing con...

Cross-region migration of brides and gender relations in a daughter deficit context

In recent years there is a growing interest in the phenomenon of across-region marriages and the wellbeing of women in such marriages in female deficit regions in countries such as India and China. Several men in district Namakkal in the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu which has had a long history of daughter elimination are currently experiencing a delay in marriage due to female deficit, educational and occupational incompatibility, and women’s changing marriage preferences, with many bringing brides from outside the region. Women who are priced out of the marriage market in Kerala, a state where women occupy a relatively better status, are also marrying these men. Based on ethnographic fieldwork, this paper argues that the experiences of cross-region brides are not idiosyncratic or ad hoc but are shaped by and embedded within the intersection of caste, class, gender and kinship. In particular the gender contexts in both the place of origin and the place women are married into, affect their wellbeing. While such unions have the potential to create a win-win situation for both parties and challenge practices such as caste endogamy and dowry, they also reinforce unequal gender norms that maintain male privilege.