Ultra-high Strength Research Articles

Deformation mechanism and properties evolution of a copper alloy with ultra-high strength after cold drawing and subsequent aging treatment

In this study, the microstructure and properties evolution of Cu-2.7Ti-0.2Fe alloy (wt.%) during cold drawing and subsequent aging treatment were investigated. The grain refinement mechanisms of the samples were analyzed in detail and systematically based on EBSD characterization. Dislocation evolution realized the refinement of grains by promoting the transformation of dislocation walls/cell walls to high angle grain boundaries. The twin-twin/dislocation intersections were another important way of refinement. Strong <100> and <111> fiber textures were formed during drawing, which had the volume fractions of 24.9 % and 55.5 %, respectively, in the sample with true strain of 8.4. The <100> fiber texture was mainly associated with the twinning and dislocation slipping in the high Schmid factor condition, while the decrease in the fraction of <100> fiber texture was mainly attributed to the grain refinement. The wire peak-aged at 380 °C for 2 h achieved excellent comprehensive properties with yield strength of 1596 MPa, tensile strength of 1682 MPa and electrical conductivity of 15.5 %IACS.

Evaporate-casting of curvature gradient graphene superstructures for ultra-high strength structural materials

In contemporary manufacturing, the processing of structural materials plays a pivotal role in enabling the creation of robust, tailor-made, and precise components suitable for diverse industrial applications. Nonetheless, current material forming technologies face challenges due to internal stress and defects, resulting in a substantial decline in both mechanical properties and processing precision. We herein develop a processing strategy toward graphene superstructure with a curvature gradient, which allows us to fabricate robust structural materials with meticulously designed functional shapes. The structure consists of an arc-shaped assembly of graphene nanosheets positioned at co-axial curvature centers. During the dehydration-based evaporate-casting process, the assembly is tightened via capillary effect, inducing local bending. By precisely tuning the axis-center distance and tilt angle, we achieve accurate control over the shape of obtained structure. Notably, internal stress is harnessed to reinforce a designed mortise and tenon structure, resulting in a high joining strength of up to ~200 MPa. This innovative approach addresses the challenges faced by current material forming technologies and opens up more possibilities for the manufacturing of robust and precisely shaped components.

Experimental Study on Properties of Graphene and Hollow Glass Powder-Added Ultra-High Strength Concrete

A new ultra-high strength concrete, in which oxidized graphene nanoplatelet (GO) and hollow glass powder (HGP) are added, has been developed by authors. This paper presents the material properties of the concrete such as workability, compressive and tensile strengths, internal micro structure (SEM and MIP) as well as air-tightness which was tested using an equipment developed in this study. Test results show that workability and tensile strength significantly increase by a small addition of HGP, and that cGO (GO product of company c) and HGP are well dispersed without agglomeration effect, resulting in more than 20% of reduction in porosity. It is also observed that air-tightness increases by 40% compared with conventional ultra-high strength concrete due to reduction in porosity; thus, new ultra-high strength concrete is anticipated to be effectively used for structures that requires air-tightness such as hyperloop tube. Consequently, it was observed that the workability and mechanical properties of UHSC were increased when cGO and HGP were used instead of silica fume (SF), and authors believe that utilization of new material would contribute to the change in manufacturing method and increase in mechanical properties of concrete.

Interaction and compatibility between steel and concrete of circular CFST stub columns with high-strength materials

To promote the application of high-strength-materials in concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns, finite element modeling, and parametric analysis were conducted on circular CFST stub columns filled with normal-strength concrete (NSC) and ultra-high strength concrete (UHSC). For simulating properties of concrete under passive confinement, a three-dimensional constitutive model for NSC and UHSC was established, of which the stress-strain relation and evolution of dilation angle are both related to confining pressure and axial plastic strain. The model was verified by tests of CFHSST (concrete-filled high-strength steel tube) and UHSCFST (ultra-high-strength concrete-filled steel tube), demonstrating that the interaction between concrete and steel tube can be revealed correctly. Parameter analysis of CFST stub columns filled with NSC and UHSC was carried out, with the grade of steel tube covering from Q235 to Q890 and the D/t ratio ranging from 8.9 to 75. With the decrease of D/t ratio, the deformation capacity and post-peak performance of columns are improved. A recommended range of steel contribution ratio of UHSCFST was proposed for the consideration of cost and safety, which is 25% ∼ 63%. Based on the analysis of interaction between concrete and steel tubes, the compatibility of the two materials is recommended, of which the yield of steel tube occurs after contact with concrete and before the concrete reaches its peak strength. Besides, the formula in EC4 overestimates the load-bearing capacity of CFST stub columns with high-strength materials. Therefore, a modified formula was proposed that reduces the enhancement factor of concrete strength and enables a safer prediction of load-bearing capacity.

The effect of gamma-ray irradiation on polymer-graphene nanocomposite interfaces

CNT yarns are used in ultra-high strength composites for use in manned deep-space vehicles. It has been previously demonstrated through experiments that gamma-ray irradiation substantially improves the mechanical performance of these composites. It is unclear how the irradiation affects the mechanical response of the CNT yarn/polymer interface that ultimately leads to these panel-level performance improvements. Physical insight into this process could enable further improvements in the CNT yarn/polymer interface design in the future. The objective of this research is to use molecular dynamics simulation to provide physical insight into the effect of gamma-ray irradiation on the mechanical behavior (interfacial interaction energy, shear resistance, adhesive strength) of the CNT yarn/polymer interface for a range of high-performance polymer systems. The simulation results indicate that gamma-ray irradiation (simulated via inclusion of defects on the CNT surface) has a most significant effect on the shear deformation resistance of CNT yarn/polymer interfaces, which likely leads to the experimentally-observed improvements in panel-level CNT yarn composites irradiated with gamma rays. The results of this study also demonstrate the importance of computational modeling in providing physical insight into observed bulk-scale material behavior. Although the predictions cannot be validated directly via experiment, such insight can ultimately lead to efficient improvements in material design (e.g. mechanical performance) that lead to further increases in panel-level composite performance.

Post-fire behavior and residual resistances of S890 ultra-high strength steel circular hollow sections under combined compression and bending

This paper presents experimental and numerical investigations into the post-fire local buckling behavior and residual resistances of S890 ultra-high strength steel (UHSS) circular hollow section (CHS) under combined compression and bending. The physical testing was firstly conducted and encompassed heating, soaking and cooling of specimens, as well as post-fire tensile coupon tests, measurements of initial local geometric imperfections and eccentrically loaded stub column tests. Then, finite element models were developed and validated with reference to the experimental observations and then adopted for parametric analyses to derive additional numerical data, considering various cross-section dimensions and loading combinations. As a result of the lack of design provisions for ultra-high strength steel structures after exposure to elevated temperatures, the applicability of the relevant ambient temperature design interactive curves given in the current European, American and Australian standards to post-fire S890 UHSS CHS under combined compression and bending was assessed, with post-fire material properties used. The assessment results showed that all design standards exhibited conservative and scattered predictions of residual resistances for S890 UHSS CHS under combined compression and bending at ambient temperature and after exposure to elevated temperatures. The American specification provided more precise predictions of residual failure loads for non-compact and slender (Class 3 and 4) sections than the Eurocode and Australian standard, due to the accurate compression and bending endpoints. In comparison to the American and Australian specifications, the Eurocode resulted in more precise results in predicting residual failure loads of compact (Class 1 and 2) sections, owing to the accurate compression and bending endpoints as well as the nonlinear design interaction curve.

Exceptional strength paired with increased cold cracking susceptibility in laser powder bed fusion of a Mg-RE alloy

Additive manufacturing (AM) of high-strength metallic alloys frequently encounters detrimental distortion and cracking, attributed to the accumulation of thermal stresses. These issues significantly impede the practical application of as-printed components. This study examines the Mg-15Gd-1Zn-0.4Zr (GZ151K, wt.%) alloy, a prototypical high-strength casting Mg-RE alloy, fabricated through laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Despite achieving ultra-high strength, the GZ151K alloy concurrently exhibits a pronounced cold-cracking susceptibility. The as-printed GZ151K alloy consists of almost fully fine equiaxed grains with an average grain size of merely 2.87 µm. Subsequent direct aging (T5) heat treatment induces the formation of dense prismatic β' precipitates. Consequently, the LPBF-T5 GZ151K alloy manifests an ultra-high yield strength of 405 MPa, surpassing all previously reported yield strengths for Mg alloys fabricated via LPBF and even exceeding that of its extrusion-T5 counterpart. Interestingly, as-printed GZ151K samples with a build height of 2 mm exhibit no cracking, whereas samples with build heights ranging from 4 to 18 mm demonstrate severe cold cracking. Thermal stress simulation also suggests that the cold cracking susceptibility increases significantly with increasing build height. The combination of high thermal stress and low ductility in the as-printed GZ151K alloy culminates in a high cold cracking susceptibility. This study offers novel insights into the intricate issue of cold cracking in the LPBF process of high-strength Mg alloys, highlighting the critical balance between achieving high strength and mitigating cold cracking susceptibility.

Nature-Inspired Incorporation of Precipitants into High-Strength Bulk Aluminum Alloys Enables Life-Long Extraordinary Corrosion Resistance in Diverse Aqueous Environments.

The safe service and wide applications of lightweight high-strength aluminum alloys are seriously challenged by diverse environmental corrosion, since high strength and corrosion resistance are mutually exclusive for metals while surface protection cannot provide life-long corrosion resistance. Here, inspired by fish secreting slime from glands to resist external changes, a strategy of incorporating precipitants as the slime into bulk metals using the inner cavity of opened carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as the glands is developed to enable high-strength aluminum alloys with life-long superior corrosion resistance. The resulting material has ultrahigh tensile strength (≈700MPa) and extraordinary corrosion resistance in acidic, neutral and alkaline media. Notably, it has the highest resistance to intergranular corrosion, exfoliation corrosion and stress-corrosion cracking, compared with all previously reported aluminum alloys, and its corrosion rate is even much lower than that of corrosion-resistant pure aluminum, which results from the pronounced surface enrichment of precipitants released (secreted) from exposed CNTs forming a protective surface film. Such high corrosion resistance is life-long and self-healing due to the on-demand minimal self-supply of the precipitants dispersed throughout the bulk material. This strategy can be readily expanded to other aluminum alloys, and could pave the way for developing corrosion-resistant high-strength metallic materials.

Effect of dispersion behavior of silica fume on the rheological properties and early hydration characteristics of ultra-high strength mortar

Silica fume plays a crucial role in ultra-high performance cementitious materials, but its dispersion, influenced by varying densification levels, leads to different degrees of agglomeration. However, the precise impact of this on rheological properties and early hydration characteristics of ultra-high performance cementitious materials remains unclear. This study assesses the impact of highly densified silica fume (HDSF), moderately densified silica fume (MDSF), and raw silica fume (RSF) on the rheological prperties of ultra-high strength mortar (UHSM). Additionally, the early hydration characteristics of UHSM influenced by these silica fumes are investigated through both heat of hydration and penetration resistance methods. The results showed that HDSF contained numerous large agglomerates, contrasting with MDSF and RSF, where the agglomerate sizes were comparable to those of cement particles. As the content of HDSF increased, the yield stress, viscosity, and thixotropy of UHSM gradually rose, accompanied by a notable decrease in hydration rate. Conversely, increasing MDSF and RSF content initially decreased and then increased these rheological properties, while the hydration rate remained relatively unchanged. The distribution behavior of the silica fumes influences the rheological properties of UHSM through water film thickness (particle spacing). Large agglomerates in HDSF reduce the activity of the entire cementitious system, significantly decreasing the hydration rate. In contrast, MDSF and RSF primarily influence the particle spacing within the cementitious system, subsequently impacting the hydration rate. This study provides theoretical insights and practical guidance for construction professionals in selecting appropriate silica fume for designing and regulating ultra-high performance cementitious materials performance.

Effect of nano-TiC/TiB2 and final thermo-mechanical treatment on microstructure and properties of 7185 alloy

In this study, a new generation of ultra-high strength 7185 aluminum alloy and nano-sized TiC+TiB2 particles reinforced 7185 alloy matrix composites (PRAMCs) were prepared, and its thermos-mechanical treatment (TMT) was studied. The electron probe microanalyzer, electron back scattered diffraction, and transmission electron microscope are used to study microstructure evolution. Tensile tests are used to investigate the mechanical properties of composite materials. The results showed that the grain can be refined significantly by adding particles. The grain size of the quenched state is very fine. The strength and plasticity of the alloy are significantly improved. After the final TMT, many dislocations were introduced, and the precipitation phase and dislocation intertwined with each other during the aging process. This increased the dislocation density and promoted the precipitation process. Thus, the strength and corrosion resistance are improved, but the plasticity is reduced. The yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation of the PRAMCs designed in this study after final TMT are 483.6 MPa, 520.4 MPa, and 9.1 %, respectively. The inter-granular corrosion layer depth is 47.2 μm. The grade of exfoliation corrosion for 6 h and 24 h is PC, and EA, respectively. This study can provide strategies for the performance optimization of PRAMCs.

Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers

Abstract Deep beams are crucial for construction projects due to their load-carrying capacity, shear resistance, and architectural adaptability. Ultra-high strength concrete and ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) are used in their production. Basalt fiber is used as an alternative due to its corrosion resistance, tensile strength, and thermal stability. This study investigates the behavior of UHPC deep beams reinforced with basalt fibers. Three sets of 11 specimens were constructed without transverse reinforcement and reinforced with either fibers or steel fibers. The study also analyzes the impact of parameters like shear strength capacity, crack development, and load-deflection behavior on UHPC deep beams. The study discovered that the inclusion of basalt fibers in UHPC deep beam can effectively postpone the onset of diagonal cracks. Incorporating basalt fiber at concentrations of 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0% led to respective increases of 48.17, 70.07, and 86.66% in the diagonal fracture force, as compared to the inclusion of steel fibers which resulted in increases of 18.24, 56.93, and 98.54% in diagonal fracture loads. The ideal ratio for enhancing the maximum shear capacity was found to be 0.75% of basalt. This specific percent resulted in the highest measured force out of the three percentages that were examined. The addition of basalt fibers at concentrations of 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0% resulted in respective improvements of 11.62, 30.08, and 28.69% in the ultimate shear capacities. During that period, steel fibers significantly enhanced the ultimate shear capacity, resulting in an increase of 19.83, 34.49, and 55.24% compared to specimens without fiber reinforcement. Regarding the second parameter of this investigation, a drop in the shear span ratio is linked to an augmentation in shear capacity and a reduction in mid-span deflection to varying extents for both the utilization of basalt and steel fibers.

Effects of Co on Mechanical Properties and Precipitates in a Novel Secondary-Hardening Steel with Duplex Strengthening of M2C and β-NiAl.

Synergistic strengthening of nano-scaled M2C and β-NiAl has become a new route to develop ultra-high secondary-hardening steel. At present, the effect of Co on the synergistic precipitation behavior of duplex phases of M2C and β-NiAl has been rarely reported. This paper revealed the effects of Co on the mechanical properties and duplex precipitates of M2C and β-NiAl in a novel 2.5 GPa ultra-high strength secondary-hardening steel. The tensile tests indicated that a 10% Co-alloy steel achieved a much stronger secondary-hardening effects compared to a Co-free steel during aging process, especially in the early-aging state. Needle-shaped M2C and spherical β-NiAl particles were observed in both Co-alloy and Co-free steels. However, the number density, and volume fraction of M2C were significantly enhanced in the 10% Co-alloy steel. The Mo contents in M2C carbide and α-Fe after aging treatment were both analyzed through experimental determination and thermodynamic calculation, and the results indicated that Co decreased the solubility of Mo in α-Fe, thus promoting the precipitation of Mo-rich carbides.

Robust Transient Semi-Glue Tape: Ultrastrong Adhesion Empowered by Water Activation and Self-Locking.

In adhesive industry, tapes are renowned for their superior flexibility, repeatability, and ease of storage compared to glues. However, conventional adhesive tapes often suffer from low adhesion strength (<500kPa). This work introduces an innovative adhesive tape composed of an amphiphilic copolymer and a hydrophobic ionic liquid, achieving an ultrahigh adhesion strength of up to 3.1MPa on various substrates, making a record-high strength to date for tape-type adhesives. This exceptional adhesion performance is facilitated by water droplets applied at the bonding interface, transforming the adhesive surface into a glue-like property without the need for curing treatments or additional auxiliary equipment. By combining the advantageous features of both glues and tapes, these adhesives are termed as transient semi-glue tapes (TSGT). The mechanism behind such water activation and self-locking process is elucidated, and a general preparation approach is developed. Furthermore, the repeatability and recyclability of TSGT are demonstrated, offering an ingenious solution to this long-standing engineering challenge.

Ultra-high strength Inconel 718 alloy produced by a novel heat treatment

Ultra-high strength Inconel 718 alloy produced by a novel heat treatment

Imparting Ultrahigh Strength to Polymers via a New Concept Strategy of Construction of up to Duodecuple Hydrogen Bonding among Macromolecular Chains.

Interconnecting macromolecules via multiple hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) can simultaneously strengthen and toughen polymers, but material synthesis becomes extremely difficult with increasing number of H-bonding donors and acceptors; therefore, most reports are limited to triple and quadruple H-bonds. Herein, this bottleneck is overcome by adopting a quartet-wise approach of constructing H-bonds instead of the traditional pairwise method. Thus, large multiple hydrogen bonds can be easily established, and the supramolecular interactions are further reinforced. Especially, when such multiple H-bond motifs are embedded in polymers, four macromolecular chains-rather than two as usual-are tied, distributing the applied stress over a larger volume and more significantly improving the overall mechanical properties. Proof-of-concept studies indicate that the proposed intermolecular multiple H-bonds (up to duodecuple) are readily introduced in polyurethane. A record-high tensile strength (105.2MPa) is achieved alongside outstanding toughness (352.1 MJ m-3), fracture energy (480.7 kJ m-2), and fatigue threshold (2978.4 J m-2). Meantime, the polyurethane has acquired excellent self-healability and recyclability. This strategy is also applicable to nonpolar polymers, such as polydimethylsiloxane, whose strength (15.3MPa) and toughness (50.3 MJ m-3) are among the highest reported to date for silicones. This new technique has good expandability and can be used to develop even more and stronger polymers.

Ultra-high strength of additively manufactured CoCrNi medium entropy alloy with high-fraction TiC

In this work, the novel CoCrNi composite with as high fraction as 5 wt% TiC reinforcements were additively manufactured (AMed) by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) of blended powders of nano-C particles, spherical micro-Ti powders and spherical CoCrNi powders, instead of blended powders of nano-TiC and CoCrNi powders. This method resulted in fully melting of C and Ti elements during laser fusion and subsequent precipitation of nano-TiC during solidification. The agglomeration of nano-TiC in the matrix is reduced by this method, resulting in an 1800 MPa ultrahigh strength, simultaneously maintaining a considerable elongation of 12 %. Rise in the fractions of TiC from 0 to 5 wt% reduces intensity of the texture and grain size in the matrix and convert the strong 〈101〉 texture to relative weak 〈100〉 texture along building direction (BD).

Ultrastrong and ductile W–Cu composites via Al- mediated interfacial diffusion layers and matrix-nanoclusters networks

W–Cu composites are integrated materials with both structural and functional properties. However, the weak interfacial bonding capability leads to limited strain hardening, which makes it difficult to take full advantage of the coordination of the biphasic materials. In present work, a multistage strain-hardening (MSH) effect is created, which enables the W–Cu composites to possess a persistent and effective strain-hardening capability. The prepared W-30(CuAl5) (wt.%) alloy has significant tensile ductility (∼21 %) and ultra-high yield strength (∼840 MPa). Remarkably, compared to the original W–30Cu without Al alloying, the strength and ductility are over two and three times, respectively, accompanied by the preservation of an electrical conductivity of about 80 %. This excellent synergistic effect stems from the Al-mediated interpenetrating interfacial diffusion layers and matrix-nanoclusters interconnection networks. As a result, a high-density of dislocation segments, self-locking structures, and a variety of twinning mechanisms such as nanotwins and 9R configurations are sequentially activated, allowing the composites to accommodate ductility deformation while simultaneously facilitating interactions that produce three unusual rises in strain-hardening rate. The present work offers a critical perspective on the realization of a synergistic ultrahigh tensile ductility and strength combination in metal matrix composites.

Microstructure evolution and surface strengthening behavior of 300 M ultrahigh strength steel under engineered surface treatments

In this work, the most efficient and common engineered surface treatments identified as shot peening (SP), laser shock peening (LSP) and ultrasonic surface rolling process (USRP) were utilized to impact the 300 M ultrahigh strength steel. The microstructure evolution and surface strengthening behavior were carefully characterized and compared for the 300 M steel with various treatments. Besides, the underlying mechanisms for difference in grain refinement and surface mechanical properties by the arranged surface modification are revealed. The results indicate that a gradient structure with nano-grains at the top surface appears on the SP, LSP and USRP treated samples. The process of repeated impacts of SP in different directions leads to activation of multiple slip systems, which thus causes severe refined grains and dense dislocation activities associated with dislocation tangles, dislocation walls and blocking. A great variety of strikes per unit area by USRP results in higher plastic deformation compared to SP where numerous dislocation cells and deformation bands were generated. In contrast to SP and USRP, fewer slip systems are activated in LSP due to the short duration time which thus leads to the thinnest refined grain layer and more planar dislocation structures. The combination of low plastic work and lack of refined grains leads to lowest full width at half maximum (FWHM) in case of LSP samples whereas high FWHM comes from both fine grain size and dislocations in SP. The grain refinement and plastic work contributes to an increase of microhardness and compressive residual stress for the SP, LSP and USRP samples. To be clear, SP leads to a higher magnitude of hardness and compressive residual stress on the topmost surface while LSP causes a larger depth due to that shock wave in LSP influences material to much greater depth. Besides, the decomposition and redistribution of carbides are also noticed on the surface layer after the surface treatments with very high strain rate where numerous dislocations accumulate at the border of the carbides and slip trace is also observed within the carbides.

Numerical investigation on post–fire resistance of cold–formed Q960 ultra high strength steel channel section stub columns

Numerical analyses on the residual resistant performance of cold–formed Q960 ultra high strength steel (UHSS) channel section stub columns after fire exposure were reported. The proposed numerical modelling method was validated by the existing experimental results of the cold–formed EN 1.4420 austenitic stainless steel, S690 high strength steel (HSS) and S960 UHSS channel section stub columns at room temperature, and the hot-rolled EN 1.4301 austenitic stainless steel channel section stub columns after exposure to fire, where the ultimate resistance, load–end shortening curve and failure mode were considered. The satisfactory comparisons demonstrate the appropriateness of the proposed numerical modelling methodology for the Q960 UHSS channel section stub columns after fire exposure. A parametric study considering different geometric dimensions and exposure temperatures was conducted, where a total of 410 numerical models were included. The geometric dimensions of cold–formed Q960 UHSS channel section stub columns changed the effects of exposure temperature on the load–end shortening curve. For the conditions after exposure temperature less than 600 °C, the slenderness limit of Class 3 in European code could be used for cold–formed Q960 UHSS channel section stub columns. When the exposure temperatures were at 700, 800 and 900 °C, the slenderness limit of Class 3 became unsuitable. The accuracy of design approaches in EN 1993–1-12, AISI S100, AS/NZS 4600 and direct strength method (DSM) was assessed. When the exposure temperatures were at 800 and 900 °C, there were noticeable differences between the numerical results and results obtained from the abovementioned design approaches. The modification methods considering effects of exposure temperature and geometric dimensions were proposed for the EN 1993–1-12 design approach to predict ultimate resistance of the cold–formed Q960 UHSS channel section stub columns after different exposure temperatures.

Ultrahigh fatigue strength of gradient nanostructured plain steel

In light of the steel development trend—plainification and high performance, we designed a gradient nanostructured plain steel with ultrahigh mechanical performance and exceptional cost performance. This multiscale design is achieved by using surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT) in a plain steel matrix subjected to quenching-partitioning-tempering (Q-P-T) process. The integration of Q-P-T and SMAT processes effectively achieves the gradient surface nanocrystallization on the high mechanical performance matrix. This gradient nanostructure exhibits an environment with gradient compressive stress accompanying with the refinement of grains, which prevent crack formation and propagation effectively. Consequently, an ultrahigh fatigue strength (up to 820 MPa) at high-cycle (107) can be achieved with remarkable cost performance (1653.1 MPa·kg/USD) at the same time, surpassing maraging steel by 14 times. The multiscale design of gradient nanostructured plain steel not only breaks the endurance-cost trade-off but also paves the way to imparting significant endurance on high carbon plain steel.