Ultra-endurance Sports Research Articles

An analysis of participation and performance by nationality at ‘Ironman Switzerland’ from 1995 to 2011

Triathlon, in particular the ‘Ironman’ distance, has become very popular in the field of ultra-endurance sports. The aim of the present study was to analyse the participation and performances at the ‘Ironman Switzerland’ in Zurich, Switzerland, regarding the nationality of the participants. Nationalities and performances of 21,399 athletes, originating from exactly 100 countries and competing between 1995 and 2011, were analysed. The mean total race times and changes across the years of the top ten athletes overall and of each country for both women and men triathletes were analysed using linear regression analyses. In total, 90% of the participants in ‘Ironman Switzerland’ originated from European countries, with triathletes from Switzerland (31.9%) and Germany (18.9%) presenting the majority, followed by participants from Great Britain (11.2%), France (7.9%), Italy (5.3%), USA (4.7%), Spain (3.5%), Belgium (2.7%) and Austria (2.6%). Switzerland presented the fastest triathletes in both sexes followed by athletes from Germany. Behind these two leading nations, triathletes from countries such as France, Belgium, Austria, Great Britain, Spain, Italy and USA competed slower. To summarize, ‘Ironman Switzerland’ has been dominated by central European triathletes regarding participation and performance. Most of the participants and the fastest finishers came from Switzerland, followed by triathletes from Germany. To assess these results, future studies need to investigate the leading nations in ‘Ironman’ qualifying races all over the world for ‘Ironman Hawaii’ and in the ‘Ironman World Championship’ in Hawaii.

Sacrificing economy to improve running performance—a reality in the ultramarathon?

ultramarathons have become increasingly popular in recent years. Although complex tactical and psychological-motivational factors play important roles in performance ([Fig. 1][1]), running velocity sustained over a prolonged time is directly proportional to maximal sustainable Vo2 and inversely

Relative improvements in endurance performance with age: evidence from 25 years of Hawaii Ironman racing

Despite of the growth of ultra-endurance sports events (of duration >6 h) over the previous few decades, the age-related declines in ultra-endurance performance have drawn little attention. The aim of the study was to analyse the changes in participation and performance trends of older (>40 years of age) triathletes between 1986 and 2010 at the Hawaii Ironman triathlon consisting of 3.8 km swimming, 180 km cycling and 42 km running. Swimming, cycling, running and total times of the best male and female triathletes between 18 and 69 years of age who competed in the Hawaii Ironman triathlon were analysed. The relative participation of master triathletes increased during the 1986-2010 period, while the participation of triathletes younger than 40 years of age decreased. Linear regression showed that males older than 44 years and females older than 40 years significantly improved their performances in the three disciplines and in the total time taken to complete the race. Gender differences in total time performance significantly decreased in the same time period for all age groups between the 40-44 and 55-59 years ones. The reasons for these relative improvements of Ironman athlete performances in older age groups remain, however, unknown. Further studies investigating training regimes, competition experience or sociodemographic factors are needed to gain better insights into the phenomenon of increasing participation and improvement of ultra-endurance performance with advancing age.

Can Neuromuscular Fatigue Explain Running Strategies and Performance in Ultra-Marathons?

While the industrialized world adopts a largely sedentary lifestyle, ultra-marathon running races have become increasingly popular in the last few years in many countries. The ability to run long distances is also considered to have played a role in human evolution. This makes the issue of ultra-long distance physiology important. In the ability to run multiples of 10 km (up to 1000 km in one stage), fatigue resistance is critical. Fatigue is generally defined as strength loss (i.e. a decrease in maximal voluntary contraction [MVC]), which is known to be dependent on the type of exercise. Critical task variables include the intensity and duration of the activity, both of which are very specific to ultra-endurance sports. They also include the muscle groups involved and the type of muscle contraction, two variables that depend on the sport under consideration. The first part of this article focuses on the central and peripheral causes of the alterations to neuromuscular function that occur in ultra-marathon running. Neuromuscular function evaluation requires measurements of MVCs and maximal electrical/magnetic stimulations; these provide an insight into the factors in the CNS and the muscles implicated in fatigue. However, such measurements do not necessarily predict how muscle function may influence ultra-endurance running and whether this has an effect on speed regulation during a real competition (i.e. when pacing strategies are involved). In other words, the nature of the relationship between fatigue as measured using maximal contractions/stimulation and submaximal performance limitation/regulation is questionable. To investigate this issue, we are suggesting a holistic model in the second part of this article. This model can be applied to all endurance activities, but is specifically adapted to ultra-endurance running: the flush model. This model has the following four components: (i) the ball-cock (or buoy), which can be compared with the rate of perceived exertion, and can increase or decrease based on (ii) the filling rate and (iii) the water evacuated through the waste pipe, and (iv) a security reserve that allows the subject to prevent physiological damage. We are suggesting that central regulation is not only based on afferent signals arising from the muscles and peripheral organs, but is also dependent on peripheral fatigue and spinal/supraspinal inhibition (or disfacilitation) since these alterations imply a higher central drive for a given power output. This holistic model also explains how environmental conditions, sleep deprivation/mental fatigue, pain-killers or psychostimulants, cognitive or nutritional strategies may affect ultra-running performance.

Position of the New Zealand Dietetic Association (Inc): Nutrition for exercise and sport in New Zealand

Position of the New Zealand Dietetic Association (Inc): Nutrition for exercise and sport in New Zealand

Ultra-Endurance Sports: Bad for the Heart?

Ultra-Endurance Sports: Bad for the Heart?

Nutrition for open water sailing: an interview with Jeni Pearce, sports dietitian.

The article in the current issue of IJSNEM on the nutritional needs of a trans-Atlantic rowing event illustrates that our seas and oceans provide great opportunities for extreme sports. Open-water sailing is another unpredictable and nutritionally challenging ultra-endurance sport. In this issue, I talk with Jeni Pearce, a sports dietitian from Auckland, New Zealand, who is internationally renowned for her work with competitors in a number of the world’s greatest open-water events.

Fluid and electrolyte balance in ultra-endurance sport.

It is well known that fluid and electrolyte balance are critical to optimal exercise performance and, moreover, health maintenance. Most research conducted on extreme sporting endeavour (>3 hours) is based on case studies and studies involving small numbers of individuals. Ultra-endurance sportsmen and women typically do not meet their fluid needs during exercise. However, successful athletes exercising over several consecutive days come close to meeting fluid needs. It is important to try to account for all factors influencing bodyweight changes, in addition to fluid loss, and all sources of water input. Increasing ambient temperature and humidity can increase the rate of sweating by up to approximately 1 L/h. Depending on individual variation, exercise type and particularly intensity, sweat rates can vary from extremely low values to more than 3 L/h. Over-hydration, although not frequently observed, can also present problems, as can inappropriate fluid composition. Over-hydrating or meeting fluid needs during very long-lasting exercise in the heat with low or negligible sodium intake can result in reduced performance and, not infrequently, hyponatraemia. Thus, with large rates of fluid ingestion, even measured just to meet fluid needs, sodium intake is vital and an increased beverage concentration [30 to 50 mmol/L (1.7 to 2.9 g NaCl/L) may be beneficial. If insufficient fluids are taken during exercise, sodium is necessary in the recovery period to reduce the urinary output and increase the rate of restoration of fluid balance. Carbohydrate inclusion in a beverage can affect the net rate of water assimilation and is also important to supplement endogenous reserves as a substrate for exercising muscles during ultra-endurance activity. To enhance water absorption, glucose and/or glucose-containing carbohydrates (e.g. sucrose, maltose) at concentrations of 3 to 5% weight/volume are recommended. Carbohydrate concentrations above this may be advantageous in terms of glucose oxidation and maintaining exercise intensity, but will be of no added advantage and, if hyperosmotic, will actually reduce the net rate of water absorption. The rate of fluid loss may exceed the capacity of the gastrointestinal tract to assimilate fluids. Gastric emptying, in particular, may be below the rate of fluid loss, and therefore, individual tolerance may dictate the maximum rate of fluid intake. There is large individual variation in gastric emptying rate and tolerance to larger volumes. Training to drink during exercise is recommended and may enhance tolerance.

Hyponatremia and seizures in an ultradistance triathlete

Hyponatremia is being increasingly recognized as a complication of participation in ultra-endurance sports. Reported is the case of an Ironman triathlete who collapsed at the end of the race, having gained 5% in body weight. His serum sodium concentration at the finish was 116 mmol/L. After an Intensive Care Unit course complicated by recurrent seizures, he eventually made a complete neurologic recovery. The pathogenesis of hyponatremia and its management in such cases is discussed.

Hyponatremia in ultradistance triathletes.

Hyponatremia ([plasma sodium] <135 mmol x L(-1)) is a potentially serious complication of ultraendurance sports. However, the etiology of this condition is still uncertain. This observational cohort study aimed to determine prospectively the incidence and etiology of hyponatremia in an ultradistance triathlon. The subjects consisted of 605 of the 660 athletes entered in the New Zealand Ironman triathlon (3.8-km swim, 180-km cycle, and 42.2-km run). Subjects were weighed before and after the race. A blood sample was drawn for measurement of plasma sodium concentration after the race. Complete data on pre- and postrace weights and plasma sodium concentrations were available in 330 race finishers. Postrace plasma sodium concentrations were inversely related to changes in body weight (P = 0.0001). Women (N = 38) had significantly lower plasma sodium concentrations (133.7 vs 137.4 mmol x L(-1); P = 0.0001) than men (N = 292) and lost significantly less relative weight (-2.7 vs -4.3%; P = 0.0002). Fifty-eight of 330 race finishers (18%) were hyponatremic; of these only 18 (31%) sought medical care for the symptoms of hyponatremia (symptomatic). Eleven of the 58 hyponatremic athletes had severe hyponatremia ([plasma sodium] < 130 mmol x L(-1)); seven of these 11 severely hyponatremic athletes were symptomatic. The relative body weight change of the 11 severely hyponatremic athletes ranged from 2.4% to +5%; eight (73%) of these athletes either maintained or gained weight during the race. In contrast, relative body weight changes in the 47 athletes with mild hyponatremia ([plasma sodium] 130-134 mmol x L(1)) were more variable, ranging from -9.25% to +2.2%. Hyponatremia is a common biochemical finding in ultradistance triathletes but is usually asymptomatic. Although mild hyponatremia was associated with variable body weight changes, fluid overload was the cause of most (73%) cases of severe, symptomatic hyponatremia.

Prostate-Specific Antigen is Not Increased in Young Men by Ultraendurance Sport Performances

Oremek and Sieffert (1) suggested that extensive physical activity increases prostate-specific antigen (PSA) concentrations. They demonstrated the increase after a standardized exercise on a cycloergometer for 15 min at 75–100 W in many healthy men with different ages. We performed PSA measurements during various sport performances to establish if strenuous exercise increases the serum PSA in young men. We measured PSA on 30 men with a mean age of 27 years (range 18–45) participating in ultraendurance performances of different sports. Twelve men participated in the Pine 24-h, an ultraendurance nonstop 24-h speed ice skating competition (February …