Ultra-dense Deuterium Research Articles

Superfluid ultra-dense deuterium D(−1) on polymer surfaces: Structure and density changes at a polymer-metal boundary

Ultra-dense deuterium D(−1) with D-D bond distance 2.3 pm is the first ultra-dense material studied. It is a superfluid quantum material and may also be superconductive. Its interaction with metal and polymer surfaces is of immediate interest. D(−1) exists on organic polymer surfaces like (poly(methyl methacrylate)) PMMA even at a distance of a few millimeter from a metal in contact with the polymer. The density of D(−1) decreases from the metal surface to the open polymer surface, and is to some extent replaced by D(1) on the polymer surface. At low surface density of D(−1), the long chain-clusters appear to lie parallel the surface, while at large densities the clusters stand vertical to the surface. Various polymers give different structures of D(−1), for example fewer non-superfluid clusters D4 are observed on fluorocarbon surfaces relative to hydrogen containing polymers. Isotope exchange reactions in four-atom clusters are probably observed between deuterium in D(−1) and protium atoms in the hydrogenated polymer surface.

Detection of MeV particles from ultra-dense protium p(−1): Laser-initiated self-compression from p(1)

Ultra-dense protium p(−1) is a condensed phase of hydrogen which has a shortest H–H bond distance of 3.7pm. It is not identical in form to ultra-dense deuterium named d(−1) or D(−1). The MeV particles released from p(−1) under impact of a ns pulsed laser are studied with time-of-flight energy measurements using a fast plastic scintillator detector. A movable metal plate or foil is used to distinguish fast particles from energetic photons. The fast particles, mainly protons, are delayed by transmission through the plate or foil from the MeV range to 200–700keV. Fast protons are ejected only after a 5–10s induction period after the laser start, and only at high pulse rates, approaching 10Hz. Particles with keV energies are ejected as late as several μs after the laser pulse. Nuclear processes are excluded in the p(−1) case and the laser intensity is quite low. It is concluded that laser-triggered self-compression from p(1) to p(−1) gives the high-energy particles.

MeV particles from laser-initiated processes in ultra-dense deuterium D(−1)

Fast particles from laser-induced processes in ultra-dense deuterium D(−1) are studied. The time of flight shows very fast particles, with energy above MeV. Such particles can be delayed or prevented from reaching the detector by inserting thin or thick metal foils in the beam to the detector. This distinguishes them from energetic photons which pass through the foils without delays. Due to the ultra-high density in D(−1) of 1029cm−3, the range for 3 MeV protons in this material is only 700 pm. The fast particles ejected and detected are thus mainly deuterons and protons from the surface of the material. MeV particles are expected to signify fusion processes D+D in the material. The number of fast particles released is determined using the known gain of the photomultiplier. The total number of fast particles formed, assuming isotropic emission, is less than 109 per laser pulse at < 200 mJ pulse energy and intensity 1012W cm−2. A fast shockwave with 30keV u−1 kinetic energy is observed.

Search for Superconductivity in Ultra-dense Deuterium D(−1) at Room Temperature: Depletion of D(−1) at Field Strength &gt;0.05 T

Ultra-dense deuterium D(−1) is expected to be both a superfluid and a superconductor as shown by recent theoretical research. Condensed D(−1) can be deposited on surfaces by a source which produces a stream of clusters. A magnetic field strongly influences the type of material formed. Very little of D(−1) and of the form D(1), which is strongly coupled to D(−1), exists on the magnet surface or within several mm from the magnet surface. Even the formation of D(−1) on the source emitter is strongly influenced by a magnetic field, with a critical field strength in the range 0.03–0.07 T. Higher excitation levels D(2) and D(3) dominate in a magnetic field. The excitation level D(2) is now observed for the first time. The removal of D(−1) and D(1) in strong magnetic fields is proposed to be due to a Meissner effect in long D(−1) clusters by large-orbit electron motion. The lifting of long D(−1) clusters above the magnet surface is slightly larger than expected, possibly due to the coupling to D(1). The previously reported oscillation between D(−1) and D(1) in an electric field is proposed to be due to destruction of D(−1).

Cluster ions D N+ ejected from dense and ultra-dense deuterium by Coulomb explosions: Fragment rotation and D + backscattering from ultra-dense clusters in the surface phase

The two forms of condensed atomic deuterium, dense deuterium D(1) and ultra-dense deuterium D(−1), can be studied by laser-induced Coulomb explosion time-of-flight mass spectrometry and neutral time-of-flight. In the present study pulsed laser intensity below 10 14 W cm −2 is used. Cluster ions D N + from D(1) are observed with N = 3, 4, 12 and 17, thus not in close-packed forms. Clusters D N (1) are mainly in the form of chains of D 2 and D 3 groups, a shape derived from the D(−1) material which D(1) is spontaneously converted to. Only atomic ions D + with initial kinetic energy of hundreds of eV are observed from D(−1). Half of these ions are ejected from the emitter surface, half of them penetrate into the ultra-dense D(−1) layer on the emitter surface. This second half of the ions is reflected completely from the surface layer formed by ultra-dense D(−1) strongly bonded clusters D 3(−1) and D 4(−1).

Fusion Generated Fast Particles by Laser Impact on Ultra-Dense Deuterium: Rapid Variation with Laser Intensity

Nuclear fusion D+D processes are studied by nanosecond pulsed laser interaction with ultra-dense deuterium. This material has a density of 1029 cm−3 as shown in several previous publications. Laser power is <2 W (0.2 J pulses) and laser intensity is <1014 W cm−2 in the 5–10 μm wide beam waist. Particle detection by time-of-flight energy analysis with plastic scintillators is used. Metal foils in the particle flux to the detector remove slow ions, and make it possible to convert and count particles with energy well above 1 MeV. The variation of the signal of MeV particles from D+D fusion is measured as a function of laser power. At relatively weak laser-emitter interaction, the particle signal from the laser focus varies as the square of the laser power. This indicates collisions in the ultra-dense deuterium of two fast deuterons released by Coulomb explosions. During experiments with stronger laser-emitter interaction, the signal varies approximately as the sixth power of the laser power, indicating a plasma process. At least 2 × 106 particles are created by each laser pulse at the maximum intensity used. Our results indicate break-even in fusion at a laser pulse energy of 1 J with the same focusing, in approximate agreement with theoretical results for ignition conditions in ultra-dense deuterium. Radiation loss at high temperature will however require higher laser energy at break-even.

Deuterium Clusters D N and Mixed K–D and D–H Clusters of Rydberg Matter: High Temperatures and Strong Coupling to Ultra-Dense Deuterium

Ultra-dense deuterium D(−1) can be formed by a catalytic process from Rydberg Matter (RM) of deuterium as reported previously. Laser-induced inertial confinement fusion (ICF) has recently been observed in this material. The formation of D(−1) is now studied through experiments observing the deuterium RM clusters DN in excitation levels nB = 1, 3 and 4. These levels are intermediate in the formation process of D(−1). Laser-induced fragmentation is used, with neutral time-of-flight (TOF) and TOF–MS measurements of the kinetic energy release (KER) from the quantized Coulomb explosions (CE). Several types of pure DN clusters, mixed clusters containing both D and H atoms, and clusters containing both D and K atoms are identified. The large planar RM clusters which are common for H and K are less common for D. The neutral DN clusters are small and have high kinetic temperature, typically at 100 K instead of 10 K for KN and HN. Large DN+ clusters are only observed when an electric field is applied, probably stabilized by increased cooling. A strong coupling of the D(1) laser fragmentation signal to the ultra-dense D(−1) signal is observed, and the materials D(1) and D(−1) are two rapidly interchangeable forms of quantum fluids.

High-charge Coulomb explosions of clusters in ultra-dense deuterium D(−1)

Laser-induced Coulomb explosions of clusters D N in ultra-dense deuterium D(−1) show a broad spectrum of fragmentation processes. For small clusters D 3 and D 4 symmetric fragmentation processes are often observed. Experiments now show that these clusters fragment by maximum-charge processes, like D 4 4+ → 4D +, each fragment leaving with 945 eV kinetic energy. This is the case even at low laser pulse intensities of <10 12 W cm −2. The facile laser field ionization of these clusters is probably caused by their small size. Such high-charge processes seem to be most common in the superfluid condensed phase. A centrifugal stretching in the clusters is observed, giving 5–8% longer D–D bonds at higher average laser intensity, probably at J ≤ 3. Rotational excitation of D 2 + fragments is often apparent at similar J values. This requires strong bonding between the two deuterons, predicted to be close to 700 eV due to strong exchange interaction.

Superfluid ultra-dense deuterium [formula omitted] at room temperature

Ultra-dense deuterium D(−1) is expected to be both superfluid and superconductive. It is deposited on surfaces below a novel source producing a stream of D(−1) clusters. It is studied by laser probing and Coulomb explosions giving cluster fragments which are observed by time-of-flight measurements. It is observed on surfaces at a few cm height above the container below the source, and on the outside of the container. D(−1) is detected above a 1 cm long vertical capillary in vacuum (fountain effect). This suggests the existence of superfluid D(−1) which is the only material that may be superfluid at room temperature.

Efficient source for the production of ultradense deuterium D(-1) for laser-induced fusion (ICF)

A novel source which simplifies the study of ultradense deuterium D(-1) is now described. This means one step further toward deuterium fusion energy production. The source uses internal gas feed and D(-1) can now be studied without time-of-flight spectral overlap from the related dense phase D(1). The main aim here is to understand the material production parameters, and thus a relatively weak laser with focused intensity ≤10(12) W cm(-2) is employed for analyzing the D(-1) material. The properties of the D(-1) material at the source are studied as a function of laser focus position outside the emitter, deuterium gas feed, laser pulse repetition frequency and laser power, and temperature of the source. These parameters influence the D(-1) cluster size, the ionization mode, and the laser fragmentation patterns.

Ultra-dense deuterium and cold fusion claims

An attempt is made to explain the recently reported occurrence of 14 MeV neutron induced nuclear reactions in deuterium metal hydrides as the manifestation of a slightly radioactive ultra-dense form of deuterium, with a density of 130,000 g/cm 3 observed by a Swedish research group through the collapse of deuterium Rydberg matter. In accordance with this observation it is proposed that a large number of deuterons form a “linear-atom” supermolecule. By the Madelung transformation of the Schrödinger equation, the linear deuterium supermolecule can be described by a quantized line vortex. A vortex lattice made up of many such supermolecules is possible only with deuterium, because deuterons are bosons, and the same is true for the electrons, which by the electron–phonon interaction in a vortex lattice form Cooper pairs. It is conjectured that the latent heat released by the collapse into the ultra-dense state has been misinterpreted as cold fusion. Hot fusion though, is here possible through the fast ignition of a thermonuclear detonation wave from a hot spot made with a 1 kJ 10 petawatt laser in a thin slice of the ultra-dense deuterium.

Laser-driven nuclear fusion D+D in ultra-dense deuterium: MeV particles formed without ignition

AbstractThe short D-D distance of 2.3 pm in the condensed material ultra-dense deuterium means that it is possible that only a small disturbance is required to give D+D fusion. This disturbance could be an intense laser pulse. The high excess kinetic energy of several hundred eV given to the deuterons by laser induced Coulomb explosions in the material increases the probability of spontaneous fusion without the need for a high plasma temperature. The temperature calculated from the normal kinetic energy of the deuterons of 630 eV from the Coulomb explosions is 7 MK, maybe a factor of 10 lower than required for ignition. We now report on experiments where several types of high-energy particles from laser impact on ultra-dense deuterium are detected by plastic scintillators. Fast particles with energy up to 2 MeV are detected at a time-of-flight as short as 60 ns, while neutrons are detected at 50 ns time-of-flight after passage through a steel plate. A strong signal peaking at 22.6 keV u−1 is interpreted as due to mainly T retarded by collisions with H atoms in the surrounding cloud of dense atomic hydrogen.

Production of ultradense deuterium: A compact future fusion fuel

Ultradense deuterium as a nuclear fuel in laser-ignited inertial confinement fusion appears to have many advantages. The density of ultradense deuterium D(−1) is as high as 140 kg cm−3 or 1029 cm−3. This means that D(−1) will be very useful as a target fuel, circumventing the complex and unstable laser compression stage. We show that the material is stable apart from the oscillation between two forms, and can exist for days in the laboratory environment. We also demonstrate that an amount of D(−1) corresponding to tens of kilojoules is produced in each experiment. This may be sufficient for break-even.

Laser-induced variable pulse-power TOF-MS and neutral time-of-flight studies of ultradense deuterium

The ultradense atomic deuterium material named D(−1) is conveniently studied by laser-induced Coulomb explosion methods. A well-defined high kinetic energy release (KER) from this material was first reported in Badiei et al (2009 Int. J. Hydrog. Energy34 487) and a two-detector setup was used to prove the high KER and the complex fragmentation patterns in Badiei et al (2009 Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 282 70). The common KER is 630 ±30 eV, which corresponds to an interatomic distance D–D of 2.3 ±0.1 pm. In both ion and neutral time-of-flight (TOF) measurement, two similar detectors at widely different flight distances prove that atomic particles are observed. New results on neutral TOF spectra are now reported for the material D(−1). It is shown that density changes of D(−1) are coupled to similar changes in ordinary dense D(1), and it is proposed that these two forms of dense deuterium are rapidly transformed into each other. The TOF-MS signal dependence on the intensity of the laser is studied in detail. The fast deuteron intensity is independent of the laser power over a large range, which suggests that D(−1) is a superfluid with long-range efficient transport of excitation energy or particles.

Deuteron energy of 15 MK in ultra-dense deuterium without plasma formation: Temperature of the interior of the Sun

Deuterons are released with kinetic energy up to 630 eV from ultra-dense deuterium as shown previously, by Coulomb explosions initiated by ns laser pulses at ⩽ 10 11 W cm − 2 . With higher laser intensity at < 10 14 W cm − 2 , the initial kinetic energy now observed by TOF-MS with variable acceleration energy is up to 1100 eV per deuteron. This indicates ejection of one deuteron by Coulomb repulsion from two stationary charges in the material. It proves a full kinetic energy release of 1260 eV or a deuteron temperature of 15 MK, similar to the temperature in the interior of the Sun. Plasma processes are excluded by the sharp TOF peaks observed and by the slow signal variation with laser intensity. Deuterons with even higher energy from multiple charge repulsion are probably detected. D + D fusion processes are expected to exist in the ultra-dense phase without plasma formation.

Ultra-dense deuterium: A possible nuclear fuel for inertial confinement fusion (ICF)

The ejection of deuterons with kinetic energy release (KER) of 630 eV was proved recently by measuring the laser-induced ion time-of-flight (TOF-MS) with two different detectors at different distances [S. Badiei, P.U. Andersson, L. Holmlid, Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 282 (2009) 70]. Realizing that the only possible energy release mechanism is Coulomb explosions, the D–D distance in the ultra-dense deuterium was determined to be constant at 2.3 pm. Using a long TOF-MS path now gives improved resolution. We show the strong effect of collisions in the ultra-dense material, and demonstrate that the kinetic energy of the ions increases with laser pulse power but that the number of ions formed is independent of the laser pulse power. This indicates special properties of the material. We also show that the two forms of condensed deuterium D ( 1 ) and D(−1) can be observed simultaneously as well resolved mass spectra of different forms. No intermediate bond lengths are observed. The two forms of deuterium are stable and well separated in bond length. We suggest that they switch rapidly back and forth as predicted by theory. A loosely built form with planar clusters of D ( 1 ) is observed here to be related to D(−1) formation.

High-energy Coulomb explosions in ultra-dense deuterium: Time-of-flight-mass spectrometry with variable energy and flight length

High-density hydrogen is of great interest both as a fuel with the highest energy content of any combustion fuel, and as a target material for laser initiated inertial confinement fusion (ICF) [S. Badiei, L. Holmlid, J. Fusion Energ. 27 (2008) 296]. A much denser deuterium material named D(−1) can be observed by pulsed laser induced Coulomb explosions giving a well-defined, high kinetic energy release (KER). Neutral time-of-flight of the fragments from the material shows that the Coulomb explosions have a KER of 630 eV [S. Badiei, P.U. Andersson, L. Holmlid, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ. 34 (2009) 487]. By using ion time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (TOF-MS) with variable acceleration voltages and a few different values of laser pulse power, we now prove the mass and charge of the particles as well as the KER. In fact, the ions are so fast that they must be H +, D + or T +. By using two different flight lengths, we prove with certainty that the spectra are due to D + ions and not to photons or electromagnetic effects. The results also establish the fragmentation patterns of the ultra-dense D(−1) material in the electric field. The energy release of 630 ± 30 eV corresponds to an interatomic distance D–D of 2.3 ± 0.1 pm. This material is probably an inverted metal with the deuterons moving in the field from the stationary electrons, which gives a predicted interatomic distance of 2.5 pm, close to the measured value. Thus, we prove that an ultra-dense deuterium material exists.