Ukrainian Foreign Policy Research Articles

CURRENT TRENDS OF ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY OF UKRAINE IN THE MIDDLE EAST

The role of economic diplomacy in establishing and developing relations between countries has been substantiated, explained by the priority of economic interests. The aim of the article is to analyze the current trends of Ukraine's economic diplomacy in the Middle East. The historical prerequisites for the formation of Ukraine's economic diplomacy and the main vectors of its foreign economic policy have been revealed. The dynamics of the regional structure of goods export from Ukraine have been analyzed, confirming that the countries of the CIS were in the focus of Ukraine's economic diplomacy in the initial stages of independence. Changes in Ukraine's foreign economic policy after 2014 have been established, and the importance of cooperation with Middle Eastern countries has been argued. Emphasis is placed on cooperation with Turkey, the main trade partner for Ukraine among the Middle Eastern countries. An assessment of the dynamics of the foreign trade activity of both countries has been conducted, and the main vectors of cooperation, which include economic and investment spheres, cultural and educational cooperation, have been substantiated. The peculiarities of Ukraine's cooperation with Turkey since the beginning of the war have been highlighted. Using the SWOT analysis methodology, the strengths and weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in Ukraine's cooperation with the Middle East countries have been identified. The main consequences of expanding Ukraine's partnership with Middle Eastern countries, which will contribute to the diversification of trade between countries, the development of joint infrastructure projects, etc., have been singled out. Strategic directions for expanding Ukraine's presence in the Middle East countries have been proposed. Among the channels of disseminating information about Ukraine, attention is focused on the work of Ukraine's diplomatic missions abroad. It is proposed to revise the format of presenting information about Ukraine in the Middle East countries, involving representatives of foreign media. The effectiveness of using social media platforms and business channels for Ukraine's strategic penetration into the markets of this region has been confirmed. Other channels for forming Ukraine's image diplomacy in the Middle East have been identified. Prospective vectors of Ukraine's economic diplomacy in the region have been outlined.

DIGITAL DIPLOMACY IS A STRATEGIC DIRECTION OF PUBLIC DIPLOMACY

The article is devoted to the analysis of the introduction of digital diplomacy. This is a strategic direction of public diplomacy. It involves the use of digital technologies and platforms. To protect the country's national interests. It is noted that modern society is undergoing large-scale changes due to the development of information technologies. The ability to effectively respond to changes determines the future prosperity of the country. The author notes that the use of information technologies in the field of public diplomacy is becoming a modern trend. Foreign scientists state that the "era of digital foreign policy" has arrived. The concept of "digital diplomacy" or "electronic diplomacy" has been introduced into modern scientific circulation. It is defined as the use of the Internet for new information and communication technologies to achieve diplomatic goals. Attention is focused on the fact that the latest trends in the development of public diplomacy of Ukraine are defined in the Public Diplomacy Strategy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine for 2021-2025. Due to the integration course of Ukraine's foreign policy, as well as Ukraine's acquisition of the status of an official candidate for accession to the European Union, close coordination and cooperation in the field of public diplomacy with the institutions of the European Union are important for our country. And the study of methodological approaches to building a system of digital diplomacy in the EU. We are talking about important documents adopted by the EU: "EU Digital Diplomacy", "Council Conclusions on Strengthening EU Digital Diplomacy in Complex Geopolitical Conditions". The article states that the Council aims to create a comprehensive and coordinated approach to EU digital diplomacy to protect human rights, democratic principles and the EU's strategic autonomy in the digital sphere. The conclusions highlight the need for stronger, more strategic, coherent and effective EU policies and actions in global digital affairs.

The state as a special subject of constitutional and legal responsibility

The article focuses attention on the role of the state in the implementation of Ukraine's foreign policy course - the acquisition of full membership in the European Union and the North Atlantic Alliance, as well as on the role of Ukraine in international cooperation aimed at preserving, maintaining and restoring peace, developing respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms to all. Attention is focused on the types of subjects of constitutional and legal relations, among which a separate group is the state, state authorities and local self­government bodies, their structural formations, in particular the parliamentary majority and the parliamentary opposition, parliamentary factions, committees, etc.; deputies, officials and officials. Attention is drawn to the common features of constitutional and legal responsibility and legal responsibility (responsibility is a consequence of an offense; it is related to the implementation of sanctions established by law). Emphasis is placed on the established doctrinal approach to the concept of constitutional and legal responsibility.
 Part 2 of Art. 3 of the Constitution of Ukraine according to which the state is responsible to the person for its activities, as well as the provision «affirmation and provision of human rights and freedoms is the main duty of the state» and Art. 9, part 2 of Art. 55 of the Constitution of Ukraine, which guarantees everyone the right to appeal in court decisions, actions or inaction of state authorities, local self-government bodies, officials and officials, part 5 of Art. 55, which guarantees everyone the right, in particular, to apply to the European Court of Human Rights with an individual application against the state, art. 56 of the Constitution of Ukraine, which guarantees everyone the right to compensation at the expense of the state or local self-government bodies for material and moral damage caused by illegal decisions, actions or inaction of state authorities, local self-government bodies, their officials and employees in the exercise of their powers, the Convention on protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms, the Law of Ukraine «On the Implementation of Decisions and Application of Practice of the European Court of Human Rights», doctrinal approaches. Attention is focused on measures of a general nature.
 The article argues that the state is a special subject of constitutional and legal responsibility. It is emphasized that the state bears constitutional and legal responsibility in the event of non­fulfillment of its obligations, if as a result of this harm is caused to anyone.

Russian-ukrainian Relations In 2014–2022: The Main Geopolitical Dimensions

The article considers the prerequisites and problems of the evolution of Russian-Ukrainian relations in the period from 2014 to 2022. Geopolitical causes of the reunification of Crimea with the Russian Federation in 2014, as well as the consequences of the mentioned event have been analyzed. The results of negotiations for settlement of the conflict in Ukraine within the framework of the Normandy format have been studied. It is emphasized that in the result of the failure to implement the Package of Measures for the Implementation of the Minsk Agreements the process of resolving the conflict in the South-East of Ukraine has reached a dead end. Moreover, the Ukrainian side, with the support of the states of the socalled collective West, has initiated the preparations to finish the conflict under consideration by military means. In addition, the transformation of the doctrinal documents that determined the Russian-Ukrainian relations has been analyzed. The active influence of the member states of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization on the foreign policy of Ukraine during the period under consideration is noted. The military and technical, reconnaissance, financial and diplomatic support provided to Ukraine by Western states, as well as the politics of Ukraine for implementation of the ideology of Ukrainian nationalism and Russophobia into society have been studied as the factors of transformation of Russian-Ukrainian relations, as well as the prerequisites for the Special Military Operation initiated by the Russian Federation on February 24, 2022.

INTERNATIONAL DIGITAL TRADE & DIGITAL ECONOMY AGREEMENTS: CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS FOR UKRAINE

The article examines the prospects for the digital transformation of Ukraine's foreign economic policy in the context of international digital trade/economy agreements, especially the Digital Trade Agreement between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Ukraine. The economic and legal effectiveness of these agreements in the process of digital transformation of foreign economic policy (foreign trade) in Ukraine and at the international level is proven. To increase their effectiveness and accelerate implementation, the political and legal framework is of great importance. Under other circumstances, the realisation of such agreements will be complicated by the need to bring domestic legislation in line with their provisions, as the case of Ukraine shows. It is substantiated that the implementation of the Digital Trade Agreement between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Ukraine is complicated by the lack of national legislation regarding electronic document management in cross-border trade; the slow pace of implementation of international legislation, for example, on personal data protection; the existence of differences in the legislative approaches of the European Union and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland regarding certain issues of trade in goods and services etc. It is emphasized that certain norms of the agreement are declarative and that it does not address some important issues that can be of great value for cross-border trade in the future.The expediency of Ukraine's constant participation in international cooperation in order to modernize foreign economic and national economic policy, taking into account the requirements of international documents and current challenges, is reasoned. In this context, constant monitoring, study of foreign experience and analysis of the consequences of resolving such important issues as cross-border transfer of information by electronic means, localization of data and entities that provide their transfer, non-discrimination, etc. are vital.

Ukrainian Discourses on NATO: Securitization, Otherness, and Their Effects on Russo-Ukrainian Relations

Abstract Ukraine’s aspirations for NATO membership have been a source of contention between Russia and Ukraine for decades. At the same time, domestic debates in Ukraine on relations with NATO have also been a divisive issue for Ukraine’s ruling political elites. These conflicts culminated in 2022, when Russia launched a military offensive against Ukraine claiming that its movement towards NATO was an existential threat to the Russian state. This paper summarizes some of the results of my longitudinal research of ruling elite discourse on NATO in Ukraine between 1997 and 2018. It focuses on the changes in national identity discourse and contestation, pinpointing their constitutive role for Ukrainian foreign policy.

Between strategic neglect and geopolitical realities: Ukraine and North Africa in Light of Russian Aggression

ABSTRACT Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine has moved the latter and its foreign policy into the limelight. Since Ukraine's independence in 1991, the scholarly literature has focused overwhelmingly on its path towards European integration and its relationship with NATO and Russia respectively. Systematic accounts of Ukrainian foreign policy and Ukraine’s relations with actors outside the post-Soviet, European and transatlantic context are, however, largely missing. This applies also to Ukraine’s relations with countries in North Africa, notably Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. Geographically and culturally distant, and in the absence of reverberating historical legacies, successive Ukrainian governments have neglected the region while passively observing how Russia, particularly in recent years, has widened its regional influence. This profile sheds light on Ukraine’s relations with North Africa and offers an empirical contribution to the analysis of Ukraine’s evolving foreign policy in light of Russian military aggression since 2014. It argues that Ukraine needs to develop a more complex foreign policy that goes beyond EU and NATO membership. To gain full ownership over bilateral developments, in times of conflict and crisis, Ukraine has to adapt to geopolitical realities and attend to a wider range of countries, such as the ones in North Africa.

ПРАВОВІ ЗАСАДИ ДЕРЖАВНОЇ ПОЛІТИКИ УКРАЇНИ У СФЕРІ МІЖНАРОДНОГО СПІВРОБІТНИЦТВА Й КОНСУЛЬСЬКИХ ВІДНОСИН

The article reveals the essence of the state policy of Ukraine in the field of international cooperation and diplomacy as a set of fundamental values, value orientations, exhaustively formulated, planned and legally enshrined in strategic documents interconnected priority actions, measures and decisions of authorized state authorities within the limits set for them by legislation institutional and functional hierarchical levels, as well as administrative, legal, financial, socio-economic and other mechanisms for their implementation, aimed at ensuring the protection of national interests, the implementation of Ukraine's foreign policy course on sustainable development and the strengthening of the main mutually beneficial relations by diplomatic methods, forms and means with foreign countries and international organizations. An analysis of a number of regulatory and legal acts in the outlined area was carried out, on the basis of which three interrelated levels of state policy were built, which are reflected in a number of domestic strategic and planning regulatory and legal documents, including: 1) the level of European and Euro-Atlantic integration; 2) the level of cross-border cooperation; 3) foreign policy departmental level. It is substantiated that today the European integration processes are the factors that lead to the transformation and formation of a modernized Ukraine, which calls for a rethinking of the functions of the state, politics and power, the functional unity of which is gradually being unified, the importance of the principles of purposefulness, non-standardization, hybridity and diversity in the political life of a modernized country is expanding. society. The development of socio-economic processes and the formation of a democratic society in Ukraine cause increased attention to the genesis of state policy and its socio-political environment.

CONCEPTUALIZATION OF UKRAINE'S FOREIGN POLICY CHOICE AS A MARKER OF DEMOCRATIZATION

The purpose of the article is to conceptualize foreign policy choice as one of the markers of the democratization of political institutions in Ukraine. Special attention is focused on the connection between the democratization of political institutions and Ukraine's foreign policy choice. The choice between democracy and authoritarianism is not only a matter of internal transformation. It covers the foreign policy space as well. Ukraine has chosen the path of European and Euro-Atlantic integration. The implementation of this foreign policy choice requires the activation of democratization processes and the expansion of the space for individual freedom of choice. For this reason, the values of freedom of speech and individual rights are noted among the determinants of Ukraine's democratic foreign policy choice. The implementation of the democratic foreign policy choice made by the Ukrainian political class is impossible without effective institutions: free mass media, electoral contests, and parliamentarism. All of them should contribute to political and economic competition and the creation and strengthening of the middle class, which, in fact, should make a democratic political choice. The research used an interdisciplinary approach, which made it possible to determine the differences between existential and marketing choices, between everyday and political choices and substantiate the presence of political, legal, economic, and communicative dimensions of foreign policy choice. The importance of historical prerequisites for foreign policy choice is substantiated.

Regional and global directions in the foreign policy of Ukraine

Regional and global directions in the foreign policy of Ukraine

Establishment of the Arab monarchies as a new global actor: conclusions for Ukrainian diplomacy

Abstract. The article addresses the phenomenon of the rise of a group of Arab monarchies to the status of an influential global actor in world politics. The study explores the implications of the phenomenon on the foreign policy of Ukraine, particularly within the context of countering russian aggression. The related achievements of the Arab monarchies are shown to stem primarily from their consistent implementation of extensive and comprehensive reforms and adept leveraging of ongoing changes in the geopolitical balance in the international arena. The study covers the role of the strategic reform initiatives undertaken by each of the countries in question, together referred to as the Vision. The author finds that their main feature lies in setting the course for the Arab monarchies’ transition from a post-carbon economic framework to a new developmental model based chiefly on the advancement of high-tech production and the knowledge industry. The successful implementation of these reforms enabled this group of countries to establish a strong economic foundation for their foreign policy advancement, shaping a new regional security system in the Gulf subregion and the Middle East region. The 32nd Arab League Summit held in Jeddah on 19 May 2023 showed the growing role of Saudi Arabia in modern world politics and international diplomacy. The author recognizes that Ukrainian diplomacy timely and adequately analysed the potential of Arab monarchies as a new global actor in international politics, enabling Ukraine to improve the branch of the MFA of Ukraine responsible for the Arab world, and to develop the main outlines of the conceptual approach to cooperation with Arab monarchies. President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy played a crucial role in these developments by participating in the Summit and negotiating with prominent Arab leaders. Keywords: Arab monarchies, Saudi Arabia, New World Order, russian aggression against Ukraine, Ukrainian diplomacy.

ФОРМУВАННЯ СИСТЕМИ МОНІТОРИНГУ ПРИКОРДОННОГО ПРОСТОРУ УКРАЇНИ НА ОСНОВІ МОДЕЛІ ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКОЇ СИСТЕМИ EUROSUR (ЮРИДИЧНИЙ КОНТЕКСТ)

The article is devoted to the problem of formation of the system of monitoring of the border space of Ukraine. The article was aimed at analyzing the main regulatory documents adopted in the European Union and Ukraine that relate to the Ukrainian border area. The authors analyzed the content and structure of the main legislative documents. The main goal of adapting Ukrainian legislation to EU legislation is to achieve compliance with the legal system of Ukraine, taking into account the criteria put forward by the EU to the states that intend to join it. This is a priority component of the process of Ukraine's integration into the European Union, which in turn is one of the main tasks of Ukrainian foreign policy. The introduction of the IBM system in Ukraine as a mechanism for state management of border security was one of the mandatory technical criteria for its visa-free regime with EU member states and remains one of the necessary conditions for its European integration in the context of cooperation on justice, freedom and security. In the current conditions, there is an acute discrepancy between the declaration in the normative legal acts of Ukraine of the intention to introduce European standards for ensuring border security and their implementation. There is uncertainty about the legal basis for building a system of monitoring the border space of Ukraine, compatible with the European multi-purpose system EUROSUR (or its analogue). Conclusions and promising directions of scientific research are formulated.

ГУМАНИТАРНОЕ СОТРУДНИЧЕСТВО УКРАИНЫ И КИТАЯ В 1990-2010-Е ГГ.

The article identifies priority areas of humanitarian cooperation between Ukraine and China in the period from 1990s to 2010s, considering the major challenges and prospects of relations between the countries in the field. It is concluded that the most promising areas of Ukrainian and Chinese humanitarian cooperation are higher education, art culture, tourism and the film industry. The author states that already in the 1990s, a number of key international agreements were signed, that formed the legal basis for Ukrainian-Chinese humanitarian cooperation. In the 2000s, student exchange programs began to develop actively, exhibitions of Ukrainian artists in China and performances of Chinese creative groups in Ukraine were organized, festivals of Ukrainian and Chinese culture were held. At the beginning of the 21st century, ties in the tourism industry and cinematography are also expanding: Ukrainian films are beginning to enter the Chinese market, and tourists from China visit Ukrainian cities more frequently. However, according to the author, by the end of the 2010s the pace and scale of Ukrainian-Chinese interaction are beginning to lose positive dynamics. Analyzing the reasons for the development and stagnation of the Ukrainian-Chinese humanitarian cooperation, the author comes to the conclusion that the active Ukrainian and Chinese humanitarian cooperation was facilitated by the absence of any serious contradictions in the relations between the two countries and China’s interest in increasing its influence on the Eastern Europe, at the same time, the features of Ukrainian foreign policy remained a deterrent.

FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS IN THE WORLD TRADE SYSTEM: BENEFITS AND MODELS

It is indicated that one of the characteristic features of the modern trade system is the rapid growth of the number of regional trade agreements, which, in turn, causes asymmetry in the dominance of regional cross-border trade rules over multilateral ones. The main advantages for countries from participating in regional trade agreements have been identified: the possibility of excluding "vulnerable sectors" from the agreement; the ability to independently choose partners in negotiations; the use of the principle of "reciprocity" is more effective compared to the World Trade Organization, the possibility of forming the image of a regional leader; within the framework of such agreements, it is possible to carry out "experimental application" of certain new measures in the field of trade, which, if successfully tested, can be tried to be applied in general mode; the possibility of attracting more foreign investments by developing countries that are not regional leaders. After examining the degree of involvement of countries in concluding regional trade agreements for the presence of regional asymmetries, a significant difference was identified from the maximum involvement of the countries of the European region (on average 33.2 agreements per country) and the countries of Africa (2.7) and the Middle East (3.9). It is proposed that one of the vectors of the development of Ukraine's foreign economic policy should be the expansion of the scope of current and future regional trade agreements to the sphere of services, e-commerce and investments, given the potential, their compliance with the global trends of the trading system, as well as the ability of Ukraine to become a significant player in a number of markets for services and trade in digital products, taking into account the availability of an up-to-date legal framework on these issues. It was determined that 50% of Ukraine's commodity exports during 2016-2021 took place within the framework of the preferential regime provided for by key free trade agreements. According to the results of the proposed forecast of such exports for the period 2021-2023, using the method of time series analysis, it was confirmed that the corresponding dependence will only grow (export volumes within the framework of free trade agreements will grow by 3 percent annually, while total exports by 2%).

INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF STRATEGIC PLANNING OF FOREIGN ECONOMIC POLICY: THE SWISS EXPERIENCE AND PROSPECTS FOR UKRAINE

The article is devoted to the analysis of institutionalization features of strategic planning of economic policy, particularly Ukrainian foreign economic policy, identifying problems in this direction and forming proposals for their decision. Using the comparative method, the experience of strategic planning of Swiss foreign economic policy, as a country that undoubtedly deserves the status of one of the world's leading economic centers, and Ukraine is analyzed and compared. It is proved that the lack of institutionalization of strategic planning in Ukraine leads to a breach of consistency and coherence in the implementation by state authorities as economic policy in general, and its separate directions, in particular the foreign economic policy. Based on the Swiss experience, the expediency of using the cascade model in the process of strategic planning for the implementation of state foreign policy, as well as of Ukrainian legal regulation modernization by strengthening the legal mechanisms of adoption of strategic documents is argued.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC DIPLOMACY

Purpose. The aim of the article is to identify the basic concepts of the formation of public diplomacy. Methodology of research. The theoretical and methodological basis of the research is the fundamental provisions of the modern theory of international economic relations, scientific works of scientists. In the process of research, general scientific and special methods were used, in particular: dialectical, monographic and systemic analysis – to substantiate the essence of the functioning of modern diplomacy; analysis and synthesis – for studying the object and subject of research; abstract and logical – during the formation of theoretical generalizations, assumptions, conclusions. Findings. Distinctive features of modern diplomacy, new forms and methods of conduct are considered. The historical development of public diplomacy is defined. It is emphasized that in the information age, public diplomacy acquires a new character and covers wider areas. It is substantiated that the European integration vector of Ukraine's foreign policy forces more active use of public diplomacy tools. The peculiarities of the formation of the image and reputation of the country, including with the help of tools of public diplomacy, are revealed. The strategic aspect of the development of Ukraine's public diplomacy through countering the threats that are growing in war conditions is argued. Originality. The theoretical concepts of public diplomacy and the peculiarities of the implementation of its tools are revealed. The theoretical and methodological approaches to uncovering the essence of public diplomacy on the basis of the generalization of existing scientific approaches, the involvement of soft power in the implementation of public diplomacy projects have gained further development. The strategic vectors of Ukraine's public diplomacy through countering modern threats are substantiated. Practical value. The obtained results of the research can be used for further scientific developments on improving the theoretical basis of public diplomacy and increasing its role in international relations. Key words: global transformations, cultural diplomacy, international security, international image, propaganda, public diplomacy, social and economic processes, Public Diplomacy Strategy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine.

ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY IN NEW PROJECTIONS OF ACTIVATION

The purpose of the article is to analyze the previous widely used approaches to the analysis of the phenomenon of economic diplomacy and to search for new approaches to its consideration in view of the new projection of the process of activation at the global level. Globalization and economic achievements of many countries in the field of international relations lead to the development of various models of diplomacy for an adequate response to challenges and threats. The subject of the study is the phenomenon of economic diplomacy in the context of a new projection of activation. Among these prerequisites were identified: international relations and international dialogue expand the range of functions of diplomacy in order to protect the interests of countries in the international arena; strengthen the format of consolidation of countries based on security systems; change the structure of negotiations, ensure the functioning of institutions and networks of cooperation. Methodology. The set of studies was based on the analysis of previous widely used approaches to the consideration of economic diplomacy. A new consideration is applied, where the new structure is considered through modern projections of activation associated with new internal features. It is in this context that economic diplomacy has the nature of an international phenomenon, which is associated with its new projections of activation, where the signs of status, integration, adaptability and mobility can radically change the perception of its potential and scope. Results. It is noted that the interpretation of the concept of "economic diplomacy" takes into account the interaction of different actors: state and non-state. Approaches to a deep understanding of the concept of "economic diplomacy" are presented in articles and studies of many modern scholars. However, the discourse of "economic diplomacy" is multidimensional and therefore needs to be developed on the basis of other scientific approaches, not only within the "systemic approach". When defining the essence of diplomacy, the following approaches should be taken into account: 1) activity; 2) communicative; 3) presentation; 4) image; 5) management; 6) environmental. Practical implications. In general, it is summarized that the availability of the above-mentioned approaches is due to the processes of modernization of the diplomatic systems of countries to form a qualitatively new line of international relations, positioning of the national economy and use of resources to ensure its full status in the geopolitical space. In modern trends of activation, it is globalization, digitalization and democratization that expand the professional boundaries of diplomacy, increase the number of alternative and independent diplomatic actors. It is summarized that the impact of the environmental factor on the competitive advantages of countries stimulates them to develop new forms of cooperation, including diplomatic. Value/originality. It was emphasized that in the current conditions economic diplomacy remains in line with the foreign policy of different countries, and, no doubt, the foreign policy of Ukraine as well. Ukraine's economic integration with the EU is deepening not only by strengthening trade and economic opportunities of the Association Agreement, but also by intensifying all spheres and levels of international relations and active diplomatic cooperation.

Historical politics as a tool of the ideological justification of Russian neo-imperialism

A number of modern Russian political discourse provisions which consist of tendentious interpretations of Russian and Ukrainian history and which result in frank and systematic manipulation of historical memory have been analyzed. Their goals are to justify Russia’s aggressive policy towards Ukraine to prove and legalize the right to decide the fate of the Ukrainian people and to determine the vectors of the Ukrainian foreign policy. At the same time, they are aimed at discrediting the Ukrainian government and delegitimizing Ukrainian statehood as well as ultimately distorting and leveling Ukrainian national identity. The outdated concept of Ancient Rus as the cradle of “three brotherly peoples”, i.e. Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians, or its more archaic version about the existence of a single Russian nation, whose branches are actually Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians, is used. A component of this concept is the idea of Russia being the direct and sole legal heir of Ancient Rus, whose historical mission was and remains the gathering of ancient Russian lands, which include the lands of Ukraine and Belarus. Accordingly, the separate existence of the Ukrainian people, and hence their right to state independence, is either denied altogether or conditionally recognized, if they maintain inseparable ties with Russia and renounce the Western vector of foreign policy. Modern Ukraine is considered by the Russian authorities and the political establishment as “anti-Russia”, which has no right to exist.
 Attempts to apply the tools of the historical politics of the Russian Federation. In particular, it concerns historical education and memorial practices in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions of the Donbas, where the territory temporarily is not controlled by Ukraine. These territories are also considered a model for similar measures used on temporarily occupied territories during the 2022 war.

AFRICA: UKRAINIAN INTERESTS VS RUSSIAN INFLUENCE

The article examines the political trends in the African region in the context of Ukraine's national security, and provides recommendations to improve the situation. According to the latest version of Ukraine’s National Security Strategy, the priority in the African region has been placed on diversifying markets and strengthening Ukraine’s political support in the face of Russian aggression. A significant threat is the growing presence of the Russian Federation in the African region with its extensive usage of both force and soft power tools, which was particularly evident at the Russia-Africa summit in October 2019 and the rapid spread of demand for the Russian “Sputnik V” vaccine against COVID-19 in 2021. Another related issue is the low level of support for Ukraine’s declarations in the UN General Assembly condemning human rights violations in occupied Crimea. The UN vote on occupied Crimea is one of the main factors in assessing relations with African governments, which Russian experts clearly point out. This reality highlights the need to increase Ukraine’s diplomatic presence and political weight in the African region in order to better contain the influence of the Russian Federation. Another important task is to monitor the destructive activities of the Russian Federation often aimed at fueling chaos, which could encourage local governments to establish closer bilateral relations with Moscow. At times, Russian policy has gone as far as supporting military coups that help to increase the level of Russian military and political presence in some states (for example, the cases of Mali in May 2021 and Sudan in October 2021).Strengthening the diplomatic level of representation in the region is a priority of Ukrainian foreign policy. In addition, the separation of economic and military-political factors is a problem for Ukraine. Trade is developing mostly with the stable countries of the eastern and southern parts of Africa, while the turbulent landscape of the west and center (except Nigeria) is poorly covered by the activities of Ukrainian enterprises. However, Ukrainian peacekeeping contingents have been active in these countries for a long time (primarily in the DRC).

UKRAINIAN FOREIGN POLICY TOWARD RUSSIA BETWEEN 1991 AND 2004: THE START OF THE CONFLICT

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine's foreign policy evolved in the geopolitical sphere of Central and Eastern Europe. As a result, the new Ukrainian interests were built on a sense of national identity. They looked to Russia and Europe to find a sense of national identity. However, Ukraine's Eurasian and Central-European ancestry caused a distinct rift in society about national identity, which influenced the formulation of foreign policy. Those trying to co-exist with Russia find it difficult to develop a Ukrainian identity completely different from Russia, justifying the togetherness through the Pereyaslav agreement. On the contrary, the nationalist-minded Ukrainians, those who want to cultivate an identity distinct from the Russians and, more specifically, look for a Central-European identity, try to influence the course of the foreign policy formation of Ukraine by citing their historicity of Europeanness with the medieval princedom of Kiev and viewing the Pereyaslav memory as disastrous for Ukraine’s independent existence. Thus, national identity is one of the main causes of the Ukrainian-Russian conflict. This study aims to uncover significant events in Ukrainian foreign policy toward Russia that led to modern-day conflict.