UEFA European Championship Research Articles

Typology of consumer behaviors during the 2012 UEFA European Championships

Background: Facing a growing diversity of needs, preferences and behaviors among sports events consumers, the segmentation of this market has become a key aspect in designing and implementing marketing programs. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to create a 2012 UEFA Euro Championship consumer typology that adopts a segmentation method based on socio-demographic and behavioral variables. Material/Methods: Sample CAPI surveys were conducted among viewers of the 2012 UEFA European Championship (N = 1,000). Consumer profiles were analyzed by adopting basic criteria of marketing segmentation based on socio-economic, demographic and psychographic variables. Due to a hierarchical clustering, authors obtained five groups of consumers: heavy, moderate, light, very light and non-viewers. Results: The study proved that an individually prepared therapeutic program including postisometric relaxation and combination therapy improves ROM in all planes of hip joins in osteoarthritis. It was also stated that after 2 pain assessment tests (the VAS and Laitinen scales) the therapy was confirmed to be a successful method in pain relief. The researchers also noticed that systematically conducted therapy led to reducing the incidence of pain which is manifested by limitation of pharmacotherapy. Conclusions: Data analysis showed a relationship between consumer behaviors and the respondents’ gender, age, place of residence. A new typology of segments of Euro 2012 fans was created.

Relative Age Effect in UEFA Championship Soccer Players.

Relative Age Effect (RAE) is the breakdown by both age grouping and dates of birth of athletes. In the past 20 years the existence of this effect has been shown with higher or smaller impact in multiple sports, including soccer. The purpose of this study was to identify the existence of RAE in European soccer players. The sample included 841 elite soccer players who were participants in the UEFA European Soccer Championship in different categories. The professional category (n = 368), U-19 (n = 144) and U-17 (n = 145) were in 2012, and U-21 was in 2011 (n = 184). The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and the Levene test recommended the use of nonparametric statistics. The results obtained by the square test ( the Kruskal-Wallis test and Cohen’s effect sizes revealed the existence of RAE (χ2 = 17.829, p < 0.001; d = 0.30), with the size of their different effects depending on their category or qualifying round achieved by the national team and the existence of significance in the observed differences by category. Therefore, we could continue examining RAE which is present in elite soccer, and could be considered a factor that influences performance of the national teams tested. RAE was not evident in the professional teams analysed, however it was present in the three lower categories analysed (youth categories), with its influence being greater on younger age categories (U-17).

Analysis of Soccer Players' Positional Variability During the 2012 UEFA European Championship: A Case Study.

The purpose of this study was to analyse players’ positional variability during the 2012 UEFA European Championship by applying principal component analysis (PCA) to data gathered from heat maps posted on the UEFA website. We analysed the teams that reached the finals and semi-finals of the competition. The players’ 2D coordinates from each match were obtained by applying an image-processing algorithm to the heat maps. With all the players’ 2D coordinates for each match, we applied PCA to identify the directions of greatest variability. Then, two orthogonal segments were centred on each player’s mean position for all matches. The segments’ directions were driven by the eigenvectors of the PCA, and the length of each segment was defined as one standard deviation around the mean. Finally, an ellipse was circumscribed around both segments. To represent player variability, segment lengths and elliptical areas were analysed. The results demonstrate that Portugal exhibited the lowest variability, followed by Germany, Spain and Italy. Additionally, a graphical representation of every player’s ellipse provided insight into the teams’ organisational features throughout the competition. The presented study provides important information regarding soccer teams’ tactical strategy in high-level championships that allows coaches to better control team organisation on the pitch.

Economic Overview of Major Sporting Events in the Czech Republic in 2015

In 2015 two major sporting events take place in the Czech Republic. 2015 IIHF World Championship will take place with the participation of sixteen teams from 1st to 17th May 2015. Czech Republic will host the event with games will be played in Prague and Ostrava. UEFA European Under-21 Championship the final tournament will be hosted in the Czech Republic from 17th to 30th June 2015. The matches of the tournament will be played in Prague, Olomouc and Uherske Hradistě. According to the theories major sporting events leave economic impacts on local economies. Sporting events make new job positions for people who organize the tournament. Sporting events attract lot of tourists, who spend money for accommodation, transportation, entertainment, tickets and retail. There are presented several economical impact studies which there made for such events in previous years and countries. International sporting events attract sponsor awareness and media attention which is also very important in promoting the Czech Republic as the touristic destination. The research paper focuses on overview of economic impacts of these sporting events which take part in the Czech Republic in 2015. The economic impacts are divided into three categories. Firstly there are economic impacts for sports federations – Czech Ice Hockey Federation (CSLH) and Football Association of the Czech Republic (FACR). Secondly there are economic impacts for hosting cities – Prague, Ostrava, Olomouc and Uherske Hradistě. Finally there are impacts for the whole Czech Republic. On the side of the costs there are expenditures of public budgets on football stadium investment and infrastructure, costs of organization of the event – staffing, renting the facilities, security, logistic, marketing, media operations and other costs. On the side of revenues of the event there are TV rights, international and local sponsors, contribution of international sports federations, contribution of local or state public budgets, ticket sales and other revenues.

‘From Rotterdam to Rio’: Investigating Perceptions of Sporting, Socio-Political and Cultural Developments in Germany between 2000 and 2014

This research explores the perceptions of a sample of German nationals towards socio-political, cultural and footballing contexts between periods of the UEFA European Championships in 2000 and the FIFA World Cup in 2014. The examinations of perceptions were obtained through interviews of German football fans from both western and eastern regions, including SV Werder Bremen club officials. The findings suggest that national pride has become an increasingly prominent feature in a unified Germany following the hosting of the 2006 FIFA World Cup. It is also argued here that immigration in German society has positively impacted the German national soccer team. However, there are some recurrent and seemingly problematic issues in German society pertaining to immigration and religious identity. Some fans and officials consider the promotion of national team manager Joachim Löw as a catalyst in the subsequent success of the national team in Rio in 2014, impacting the development of German football from 2000.

The value of sporting success to Germans: Comparing the 2012 UEFA Championships with the 2012 Olympics

We examine the value of sporting success to the German population at two major sport events in 2012, the UEFA European Championships and the London Olympic Games. Primary data were collected with a nationwide online survey of the German population (n = 359). Using the contingent valuation method (CVM), this study is the first to compare the value of sporting success between two events. The weighted results show that 57.5 % of the respondents stated a positive (>0) willingness-to-pay (WTP) for winning the European Championships title and 40.6 % for the first place in the Olympic medal table. Conversely, the findings indicate a lower average WTP for winning the European title in football (€40.74) than for Germany being ranked first in the Olympic medal table (€46.47). Regression analyses indicate that middle-aged individuals with low expectations of a good German result, low identification with the national team, but high personal importance that the team does well stated a significantly higher WTP for winning the title at the European Championships. For the first place in the medal table, females with a lower educational level, little interest in sports in general but high interest in the Summer Olympics including watching the Games, high expectations of a good German result, and a high identification with the German team reported a significantly higher WTP.

Effectiveness of Indirect Free Kicks in Elite Soccer

The aims of this study were to determine the effectiveness of indirect free kicks, identify variables associated with a successful outcome, and propose a model for taking free kicks with an increased probability of success. The analysis focused on 783 free kicks taken in 124 matches at the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the final stages of the UEFA Champions League in 2010/11, and the 2010 UEFA Euro-pean Championships. The following variables were studied by univariate, biva-riate, and multivariate analyses: time of the match when the indirect free kick was taken, position and laterally of the kick, number of attackers, number of defenders, interaction context, delivery of ball, path of ball, type of marking, number of intervening attackers, area to which the ball was passed, shooting area, offensive organization, type of shot, and match status. The results show that almost 36 indirect free kicks are needed to score a goal, but that 64% of goals from indirect free kicks have a decisive influence on game outcome. Goals were more common when the attack was organized dynamically and three or four players touched the ball before a shot was taken. These findings could help coaches to improve free-kick performance.

Securitisation and the mega‐event: an editorial introduction

I n August 2011 organisers of the London 2012 Olympics staged rehearsals for the Opening Ceremony due to commence exactly one year hence. Meanwhile, other parts of the city were experiencing rioting and looting on a scale not seen for 30 years. Whilst these two events were largely distinct, their simultaneous occurrence underscored an important point. For all the attention to the enclosure, artificial urbanism and contrived spaces that hosting sporting mega events create, they are accommodated in complex and often contested urban settings. Two years later, the links between the politics of the street and the sporting mega-event spectacle became cemented elsewhere. Echoing protests against Mexico City’s profligate Olympic spending at a time of austerity in 1968, June 2013 saw more than a million people take to the streets across 100 Brazilian cities. Although activist causes were manifold they unmistakably coalesced around the social and pecuniary impacts of Brazil’s staging of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2016 Olympic Games. As mega-event spectacles, replete with promises of ‘regeneration’ and ‘legacy’, continue to encroach further into the urban realm, so different levels of action, activism, governance and policy necessarily become drawn together. For sporting mega-events, it is in the realm of security practice where the heat generated by internationally focused agendas abrading with local practices, processes and priorities is greatest. Here, the promise of stringent security guarantees is a precondition for hosts who operate under a constant risk of catastrophic reputational damage should they not be met. Of course, it is rare that, in such a broad sense, ‘security’ can ever be guaranteed and, for planners, its pursuit results in dwindling levels of acceptable risk. When applied to the complex, dynamic and unpredictable realm of the global city, the contemporary stage for sporting mega events, such promises are even harder to keep. The result is uneasy coalitions of international, national, regional and local security practice; a merger of civil, military and criminal justice techniques and technologies of social control; and a proliferation of security priorities. Yet whilst some of these measures may be exceptional for the cities that host them, they often represent very familiar elements of mega-event security programmes.

Poles apart: foreign players, Polish football and Euro 2012

The 14th running of the UEFA European Championships represented a watershed moment for football, and sport more broadly, in Eastern Europe. Whilst the competition itself might have been restricted to Europe’s elite national teams, world football’s gaze was drawn towards the joint hosts, Poland and the Ukraine, for the duration of the tournament. At this juncture, therefore, this paper seeks to consider the ‘place’ of football in Eastern Europe, and in this case, Poland specifically, by conducting an analysis of the economic value of Poland’s top division – the Ekstraklasa, and by examining the factors that influence foreign players’ decisions to migrate to that particular league. The paper identifies that whilst the Ekstraklasa might sit outside of Europe’s core football economies, it still offers much as a migration destination for certain sorts of players. However, the paper also shows that whilst the 2012 UEFA European Championships provided significant exposure for Poland in the football context, it is less clear if hosting the event will have a lasting effect on the development of Poland’s top league and its desirability to foreign players.

A Model Based Ranking System for Soccer Teams

In competitive sports, the design of an effective ranking system attracts increasing interests. For sports with 2-way results, the Bradley-Terry model has proven to be an effective approach. However, a well-known limitation of standard Bradley-Terry models is that they cannot be applied to sports which allow to end with a tie after regular playing time. During the past decades various methods have been explored to model soccer games in the literature. In this paper, a new extended Bradley-Terry model with various covariates is devised to construct a more advanced ranking system for international soccer teams based on their games played within the past 4 years. First a standard likelihood (ML) estimation method was employed. A weighted likelihood (WML) estimation procedure was run for further improvement. Finally an evolutional model was developed to capture the dynamic trend in performance during big events. This paper examines the extent to which our ranking differs from the existing FIFA ranking. In addition, the 2012 UEFA European Football Championships was analyzed.

Fatigue and Team Performance in Soccer: Evidence from the FIFA World Cup and the Uefa European Championship

We investigate the role of fatigue in soccer (football). Although this issue is important for the “productivity” of players and the optimal organization of national and international championships, there is a lack of empirical evidence. We use data on all the matches played by national teams in all the tournaments of the FIFA Soccer World Cup (from 1930 to 2010) and the UEFA European Football Championship (from 1960 to 2012). We relate team performance (in terms of goal difference and points gained) to the respective days of rests that teams have had after their previous match, controlling for several measures of teams’ abilities. Using different estimators we show that, under the current structure of major international tournaments, there are no relevant effects of enjoying different days of rest on team performance.

Fool's gold: major sport events and foreign direct investment

Whether or not a city or a country should bid to host the Olympics or one of the big international football tournaments is often the source of heated debates. One question that is always raised is whether hosting such an event yields positive economic benefits. Using data from the period 1970–2009 we investigate whether there is a link between hosting a major sport event and the amount of foreign direct investment (FDI) a country receives. We employ time-series cross-section data for countries that have hosted either the Summer Olympics, the Winter Olympics, the FIFA World Cup or the UEFA European Championship in that period. While our overall results, on balance, offer support to the ‘pessimistic’ side of the debate about the economic effects of hosting mega events, our findings also indicate that some FDI benefits might still accrue to the host. Results are not unambiguous, however. More detailed analysis suggests that staging the Olympics has virtually no effect on FDI inflows, whereas hosting a major, nationwide football tournament might have a small positive impact on foreign investment, particularly in the years leading up to the event. These latter results seem to be driven by smaller nations.

National Pride: War Minus the Shooting

This study focuses on the determinants of self-reported measures of national pride. Using pooled cross-sectional data for European countries obtained from the Eurobarometer, it is estimated that pride is not correlated with GDP per capita nor with household income levels. Using the 2000 UEFA European Championship as a natural experiment, it is estimated that individuals from both host and winning nations report, on average, higher levels of national pride in the period immediately following the event, supporting theoretical arguments of a “feel-good” factor associated with sports events. Accounting for performance relative to expectations produces results along the same lines.

National well-being and international sports events

The widely proclaimed economic benefits of hosting major sporting events have received substantial criticism by academic economists and have been shown to be negligible, at best. The aim of this paper is to formally examine the existence of another potential impact: national well-being or the so-called “feelgood” factor. Using data on self-reported life satisfaction for twelve European countries we test for the impact of hosting and of national athletic success on happiness. Our data covers three different major events: the Olympic Games, the FIFA World Cup and the UEFA European Championship. We find that the “feelgood” factor associated with hosting football events is large and significant, but that the impact of national athletic success on happiness, while correctly signed, is statistically insignificant.

Evaluating the regulatory procedure of host‐country selections for the UEFA European championship: A case study of Euro 2004

European football is currently adjusting to a new regulatory environment, known as the SMP or Single Market Programme, which places great an emphasis on the trans‐European context. The UEFA European Football Championship ‐ a tournament for national representative teams, which has taken place every four years since its inception in 1960 ‐ has evolved along with the European Union project and in parallel with the liberalisation policies influencing the burgeoning sports industry and its labour market. This paper examines the dynamics of the next Championship, Euro 2004, which will be staged in Portugal. Support for this event among the Portuguese public is tested with the CVM‐Contingent Valuation Method, and the paper concludes that the regulatory procedures applied to economic and democratic principles are problematic.