Typhoid Infection Research Articles

Sanitation facility mapping at Kalideres District, West Jakarta

Poor sanitation has various impacts on human health, such as the risk of contracting diseases like diarrhoea, typhoid, polio, and worm infections. The government has set targets in the National Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMN) 2020 - 2024, with the goal of achieving 90% access to proper sanitation, including 15% of households having access to safe sanitation, and reducing the rate of open defecation to 0% by the end of 2024. The objective of this mapping is to recommend wastewater sanitation technologies in Tegal Alur Subdistrict. Data collection will be carried out through interviews and questionnaires, determining the number of respondents using the Slovin formula. Interviews and questionnaires will be conducted in 4 densely populated neighbourhoods (RW) with a high rate of open defecation, namely RW 01, RW 02, RW 03, and RW 13. Based on the results of interviews and questionnaires, 71% of the population in Tegal Alur Subdistrict have toilets, but only 24% have septic tanks, leading to environmental pollution due to wastewater discharge. The type of septic tank used is individual septic tanks, and 88% of the population in Tegal Alur has never desludged their septic tanks. The condition of wastewater sanitation in Tegal Alur Subdistrict can be described as poor, characterized by a lack of septic tanks to manage wastewater, resulting in wastewater pollution of the environment, which can lead to various diseases.

Fractional‐calculus analysis of the dynamics of typhoid fever with the effect of vaccination and carriers

AbstractTyphoid fever poses a severe hazard to public health and affects at least 27 million people annually around the globe. It is significant to conceptualize the key factors of the transmission phenomena of this bacterial infection. We formulate a novel epidemic model for typhoid fever with vaccination and carriers via Caputo‐Fabrizio operator. The fundamental results of the model are inspected analytically and the basic reproduction value are then assessed. The Jacobian matrix approach has been used to demonstrate the local stability of the infection‐free steady‐state for . We interrogated the uniqueness and existence of the solution of the recommended fractional dynamics of typhoid fever. We illustrated the solution pathways of the recommended system of typhoid fever numerically and demonstrated the dynamics of the infection with variation of different parameters. Our results demonstrated how the dynamical behavior of the typhoid fever infection is influenced by input parameters. The findings highlight the significance and persuasive behavior of fractional order and show that the model's fractional memory effects appear to be a good fit for these kinds of findings. We have shown the most attractive factors of the system for the control and prevention through our study.

Studies of Parasitic and related health risk associated with Waste Scavengers OR Rag Pickers in Port Harcourt Nigeria

This study is on investigating the health risk of waste scavengers (rag pickers), and the microbial burden of the waste. Samples were collected from 8 dumpsites (7 dumpsites and 1 control) from different parts of Port Harcourt, analyzed for total heterotrophic count. A total of 100 subjects (80 ragpickers and 20 students as control) were examined for microbiological parameters. A well-structured questionnaire and oral interview were administered to the rag pickers. Ascaris was seen in 12 (35.29%) of the rag pickers and 2 (40%) of the control subjects. Also, Entamoeba histolytica was seen in 10 (29.41%) of the rag pickers, 2 (40%) of the control. Hookworm was seen in 8 (23.53%) of rag pickers, zero in control subjects, then Trichuris trichiura was seen in 4 (11.76%) of the rag pickers and 1 (20%) of the control. Widal test results which correlates with the stool culture indicates that they are prone to typhoid infection. The HIV and hepatitis tests were not significant. Malaria parasites was seen in 30 (57.68%) of the rag pickers. Despite the fact that rag pickers make money from their business, they may serve as vehicle for infections and the health implication is of great concern.

Antimicrobial Profile and Prevalence of Salmonella Species from Blood Culture in A Tertiary Care Hospital

Background & Aim: Enteric fever is a major public health concern around the world and endemic in low- and middle-income countries like, India. Typically, it spreads through contaminated food or water. Salmonella Typhi proliferate and spread throughout the bloodstream seeding multiple organs in the body. Incidence data of culture confirmed Typhoid cases is approximately 377per 100000 population with an approximate case fatality rate of 1% in India. The management of cases are hampered due to emerging the drug resistance of isolates because of rampant and misuse of antibiotics. This study investigates to analyse the current pattern of antibiotic susceptibility among Salmonella isolates from cases of enteric fever seen at ESIC Medical College & Hospital, Faridabad.
 Material & Methods: This is a retrospective, cross-sectional study. Blood cultures from patients with suspected enteric fever from Jan 2017 to Dec 2019 were included. The blood cultures were processed using the BacT/Alert automated blood culture system.
 Results: During the study period, a total of 4064 blood culture specimens were received from the patients suspected for fever. Out of a total of 2717 culture positive samples, 373 (13.73%) were found positive for the growth of Salmonella enterica [Salmonella typhi 87.13% (325/373), Salmonella paratyphi A (12.86%)], confirming the enteric fever.
 Conclusion: Treatment with appropriate antimicrobial drugs is crucial for patients with typhoidal infections and the antimicrobial susceptibility of such isolates must be reported as soon as possible.

A therapeutic epitopes-based vaccine engineering against Salmonella enterica XDR strains for typhoid fever: a Pan-vaccinomics approach

A prevalent food-borne pathogen, Salmonella enterica serotypes Typhi, is responsible for gastrointestinal and systemic infections globally. Salmonella vaccines are the most effective, however, producing a broad-spectrum vaccine remains challenging due to Salmonella’s many serotypes. Efforts are urgently required to develop a novel vaccine candidate that can tackle all S. Typhi strains because of their high resistance to multiple kinds of antibiotics (particularly the XDR H58 strain). In this work, we used a computational pangenome-based vaccine design technique on all available (n = 119) S. Typhi reference genomes and identified one TonB-dependent siderophore receptor (WP_001034967.1) as highly conserved and prospective vaccine candidates from the predicted core genome (n = 3,351). The applied pan-proteomics and Immunoinformatic approaches help in the identification of four epitopes that may trigger adequate host body immune responses. Furthermore, the proposed vaccine ensemble demonstrates a stable binding conformation with the examined immunological receptor (HLAs and TRL2/4) and has large interaction energy determined via molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation techniques. Eventually, an expression vector for the Escherichia. coli K12 strain was constructed from the vaccine sequence. Additional analysis revealed that the vaccine may help to elicit strong immune responses for typhoid infections, however, experimental analysis is required to verify the vaccine’s effectiveness based on these results. Moreover, the applied computer-assisted vaccine design may considerably decrease vaccine development costs and speed up the process. The study’s findings are intriguing, but they must be evaluated in the experimental labs to confirm the developed vaccine’s biological efficiency against XDR S. Typhi. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma

Incidence of malaria and typhoid fever co-infection among patients attending Rimingado Comprehensive Healthcare Centre, Kano State, Nigeria.

The research was carried out to determine the incidence of malaria-typhoid co-infection among patients attending Rimingado comprehensive healthcare centre, Kano state, Nigeria. Patients’ bio- data were obtained through structured questionnaire and diagnosis was done using venous blood sample obtained from the participants. Rapid diagnostic test was used for analysis of malaria parasites while widal test was used for the analysis of enteric fever. Of the 150 patients enrolled for the study (85 females and 65 males), 60 (40.0%) had malaria and typhoid fever co-infection (P<0.05). The incidence of malaria-typhoid co-infection was highest among those in the age group range between 11-20 years (12.0%). However, with regard to the marital status, those that were single had the highest incidence of coinfection (27.3%) than the married. Poor sanitary habits, poverty and ignorance are the predisposing factors for the development of malaria and typhoid infections.

Phytochemical Screening and Antibacterial Activity of Chrysophyllum albidum Collected in Nsukka, South East Nigeria

Background: Chrysophyllum albidum is widely used by African people for the treatment of various types of diseases such as ear infection, sore throat, typhoid, cellulites, septicaemia, bactericemia, abscesses and tooth infections.
 Aim: The study was conducted to investigate the chemical components and antibacterial activity of the extract and fractions from the root bark of Chrysophyllum albidum from Nsukka, South-east Nigeria.
 Methodology: The fresh roots were collected, washed, cut into small pieces, air dried and pulverized to powder using mechanical grinder. Extraction and fractionation were done by cold maceration method and technique of liquid–liquid extraction respectively. The phytochemical analysis of the methanol extract and, n-hexane, butanol, aqueous and ethylacetate fractions of the plant part was carried out using standard method. The antibacterial activities were determined using cup-plate agar diffusion and agar dilution methods.
 Results: The phytochemical screening of the extract revealed the presence of tannins, flavonoids, saponins, terpenoids, alkaloids, reducing sugar and cardiac glycosides. The inhibition zone diameter (IZD) produced by the agents against some selected Gram positive bacteria (GPB) and Gram negative bacteria (GNB) pathogens ranged from 6 – 25 mm and 6 – 12 mm respectively. The MIC and MBC values produced by the extract and fractions of the plant’s part against the GPB ranged from 1.25 – 40 mg/ml and 5 – 80 mg/ml respectively Many of the GNB were not sensitive to the agents tested except Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella spp that exhibited mild to moderate sensitivity to the agents.
 Conclusion: These agents, therefore, exhibited a potent antibacterial activity against all the GPB and a few GNB pathogens tested due to their potent phytochemicals. The results of this work have corroborated the trado-medical use of root of Chrysophyllum albidum for treating ear infection, sore throat, typhoid, cellulites, septicaemia, bactericemia, boils and tooth infection/decay.

Ethnobotanical Survey, Consumption Pattern and Genetic Conservation of Leafy Vegetables in South-West Nigeria

Leafy vegetables are important in human nutrition; however, their diversity as seen in the dishes in South western Nigeria appears to be diminishing. Many popular delicacies are no longer available in the markets. Therefore, this research was conducted to identify and document leafy vegetables in South West Nigeria, assess their ethnobotanical uses from questionnaires administered to farmers/sellers, secure their genetic resource base, and improve their value chain in South-West Nigeria. Vegetable samples were collected from different local communities in five South-West states in Nigeria, identified using manual/flora, and authenticated at the University of Lagos Herbarium. One thousand respondents, 200 in each state, participated in the study. Of these, 76.7% were female, while 23.3% were male. A total of twenty-six (26) leafy vegetables were collected. Twenty-one (21) species are indigenous to the study area, while five (5) species are non-indigenous. Ethnobotanical survey on leafy vegetables from farms and markets revealed that Launaea taraxacifolia, Solanum macrocarpon, Solanum nigrum, Solanum aethiopicum, Solanecio biafrae, Crassocephalum crepidioides and Basella alba are of high medicinal value. They can be used solely or as a recipe with other leafy plants in the treatment of various ailments including malaria, typhoid, blood pressure, stomach disorder, heart diseases and gastrointestinal tract infections. These vegetable species have been neglected and underutilized by humans. Generally, a low degree of consumption, extent of consumption, and cash income capacity was recorded, with exception to the commonly cultivated vegetables. Extracted DNA from the leafy vegetables yielded good-quality DNA; this has been deposited in the DNA bank at the University of Lagos. This study has documented indigenous knowledge on leafy vegetables in southwest Nigeria and contributed towards ex-situ conservation of the species in the DNA bank.
 Keywords: Leafy Vegetables, Ethnobotany, Genetic Conservation, Indigenous knowledge, Underutilized species

Typhoid conjugate vaccines for preventing typhoid fever (enteric fever)

Objectives This is a protocol for a Cochrane Review (intervention). The objectives are as follows: To assess the efficacy and safety of typhoid conjugate vaccines compared to no vaccine, placebo, typhoid‐inactive agents (vaccines for another disease), or other typhoid vaccines for preventing morbidity and mortality associated with typhoid fever infection in adults and children.

Typhoid Control in an Era of Antimicrobial Resistance: Challenges and Opportunities.

Historically, typhoid control has been achieved with water and sanitation interventions. Today, in an era of rising antimicrobial resistance (AMR), two World Health Organization-prequalified vaccines are available to accelerate control in the shorter term. Meanwhile, water and sanitation interventions could be implemented in the longer term to sustainably prevent typhoid in low- and middle-income countries. This article first approaches typhoid control from a historical perspective, subsequently presents how vaccination could complement water and sanitation activities, and finally discusses the challenges and opportunities for impactful control of typhoid infection. It also addresses data blind spots and knowledge gaps to focus on for typhoid control and to ultimately progress towards elimination. This article presents a synthesis of discussions held in December 2021 during a roundtable session at the "12th International Conference on Typhoid and Other Invasive Salmonelloses".

Myeloneuropathy with Bilateral Foot Pain after Scrub Typhus Infection: An Antibody-Proven Case Report

Scrub typhus is an acute febrile illness caused by <i>Orientia tsutsugamushi</i>. The most common neurological symptoms are headaches presenting with meningitis, meningoencephalitis, or encephalitis; however, transverse myelopathy and polyneuropathy are rare in typhoid infections. Herein, we report a laboratory and electrodiagnostically proven case of subacute myelopathy and polyneuropathy with slow progression after scrub typhus infection. A 64-year-old man complained of truncal numbness and a burning sensation in both feet. Magnetic resonance imaging did not reveal any definite changes in the spinal cord; however, serological tests showed immunoglobulin G antibodies against O. tsutsugamushi by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. An electrophysiological study showed myelopathy concurrent with polyneuropathy. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first immunochemical detection of antibodies in a patient with delayed neurological manifestations after scrub typhus infection.

Impacts of Seasonal and Spatial Variations on the Transmission of Typhoid Fever

Typhoid fever is a disease caused by the bacteria Salmonella Typhi through the ingestion of contaminated food or water, and it is still serious in developing countries. The infection routes include both human-to-human transmission and environment-to-human transmission. It was observed that higher incidence of typhoid fever occur during the rainy season and people living near water bodies may have a higher rate of typhoid infection. On the other hand, asymptomatically infected individuals also play a central role in the transmission of typhoid since they are not experiencing any symptoms but they are able to shed S. Typhi into the environment for years. Thus, a well-described model of the Typhoid transmission should include the asymptomatical compartment and the factors of spatial homogeneity and seasonality. This motivates us to develop a periodic two-patch system to investigate the spatial and seasonal effects on the transmission of Typhoid fever, in which the bacteria in the environment is included, and the population of human is divided into five classes, namely, susceptible individuals, infected individuals, carrier individuals, individuals under treatment and recovered individuals. We first introduce the basic reproduction number for the model, then we show that the extinction/persistence of Typhoid can be determined by <I>R</I>₀. Our numerical results indicate that an outbreak of Typhoid fever in a two-patch environment could be eliminated if migration between patches is prohibited. Finally, we also numerically observe that the infection risks of Typhoid may be underestimated if seasonal effects are ignored.

Identification of Multiple Variant Extensively Drug-Resistant Typhoid Infections across Pakistan.

Typhoid fever, caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi), is a life-threatening bacterial infection. Recently, an outbreak of a new sublineage of extensively drug resistant (XDR) S. Typhi emerged in Pakistan in the province of Sindh. This sublineage had both a composite multidrug resistance transposon integrated on the chromosome and an acquired IncY plasmid carrying the extended spectrum beta-lactamase, blaCTX-M-15, which conferred resistance to third-generation cephalosporins. We observed previously that XDR typhoid had spread beyond the originating southern Sindh Province. Thus, we sought to determine the genetic diversity of 58 ceftriaxone-resistant S. Typhi clinical isolates by whole genome sequencing collected across Pakistan from November 2018 to December 2020 to provide insights into the molecular epidemiology of the evolving outbreak. We identify multiple novel genomic integrations of the extended spectrum beta-lactamase gene into the chromosome in S. Typhi, revealing the existence of various XDR typhoid variants circulating in the country. Notably, the integration of the IncY plasmid bearing antibiotic resistance genes may allow for subsequent plasmid acquisition by these variants, potentially leading to further plasmid-borne multidrug resistance. Our results can inform containment initiatives, help track associated outcomes and international spread, and help determine how widespread the risk is.

A Ten-Year Retrospective Survey of Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns among Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Serovar Typhi Isolates in Ontario, Canada.

The epidemiology and treatment of typhoid fever are complicated by the emergence and spread of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi lineages with resistance to many antimicrobial agents critical for therapy. Current information on the susceptibility patterns of S. Typhi isolates identified in regions where typhoid fever is not endemic is important as these are often acquired after traveling to countries of endemicity where resistant strains circulate. Here, we report a 10-year retrospective survey of S. Typhi antimicrobial susceptibility patterns among 858 unique patient isolates that underwent reference laboratory testing in Ontario, Canada, between 2010 and 2019. Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns remained stable for ampicillin (average, 78.7% susceptible), azithromycin (average, 99.4% susceptible) ertapenem (average, 100.0% susceptible), meropenem (average, 100.0% susceptible), and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (average, 78.2% susceptible) during the study period; however, nonsusceptibility to ciprofloxacin and ceftriaxone increased. While ceftriaxone-resistant isolates comprised 1.6% of the total isolates overall, they represented 10.1% of the total isolates tested in 2019, indicating a significant increase over time. Our findings suggest that when selecting empirical therapy, health care providers should strongly consider current trends in antimicrobial susceptibility and investigate the patient's exposure risk to gauge whether a suspected typhoid infection may be caused by a potentially resistant S. Typhi strain. IMPORTANCE This work provides an updated summary of the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns among Salmonella Typhi strains isolated from patients in Ontario, Canada.

Occurrence of &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Salmonella&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; Enteric Serovar Typhi Antibodies among Blood Donors in Ghana

Background: Donated blood contaminated with S. Typhi can cause post-transfusion sepsis. This study aimed to determine the correlation between some risk factors of typhoid fever and seroprevalence of antibodies against S. Typhi among blood donors. Methodology: Following informed consent, socio-demographic and information on risk factors of typhoid infection was obtained using pre-structured questionnaires from 400 apparently healthy blood donors at the Tema General Hospital. Blood was also collected for serology and cultured for identification of pathogens by standard bacteriological method. Results: Blood culture did not reveal any S. Typhi isolate out of the tested 400 (348 males and 52 females) samples from apparently healthy blood donors. However, IgM and IgG antibody seroprevalence of 9.3% and 3.5% were detected. Age group of 17 - 24 years was the highest risk group, persons with a history of typhoid infection, and sources of drinking water were major risk factors for typhoid infection. It was also observed that prevalence of IgM was highest among new donors (62.2%), but lower in donors with a history of 1 to 3 blood donations (32.4%) and least among regular donors (>3 donations (5.4%)). In addition, typhoid prevention awareness and typhoid knowledge (knowledge about typhoid transmission) among the donors were poor (4.3% and 5.9% respectively). Conclusions: This study has shown an overall seroprevalence of 9% and 3.5% for IgM and IgG antibodies respectively among blood donors in the Tema area in Ghana. We advocate for the mandatory screening of donor units intended for transfusion for S. Typhi. Furthermore, there is an urgent need for the health education of all persons in Ghana on preventive measures and the spread of S. Typhi.

Antibiotic Profile and Molecular Characterization of Typhoidal Salmonellosis among Abattoir Workers in the Southern Region of Nigeria

Typhoid fever remains endemic in most developing countries with large scale transmission through contaminated food and drinking water. Since 2000s, animal and their products have been found to be a common food source for Typhoidal infections. A total of 90 blood specimens, 45 samples each were collected from abattoir and non-abattoir workers in Akwa Ibom State and were screened for Salmonella species using standard cultural and serological techniques. The overall prevalence rate was 12 (13.3%). Salmonella species were distributed in all the three senatorial districts of the State. Percentage distribution of Salmonella isolates was 3 (3.3%) for Uyo, 4 (4.4%) for Eket and 5 (5.6%) were isolated from Ikot Ekpene districts. Out of 90 human subjects screened, 12 (13.3%) were positive and 5 (5.6%) were isolated from non-abattoir while 7 (7.7%) were isolated from abattoir workers. In this study, serological significant titre of ≥160 of Typhoid fever cases was confirmed by blood culture. According to sero-grouping and source of sample collection 4.4% S. typhi was isolated from abattoir workers followed by S. paratyphi A (3.3%) while S. typhimurium and S. gallinarum (2.2%) and S. enteritidis (1.1%). Increase prevalence of Salmonella serovars such as S. gallinarium, S. typhi, S. Typhimurium and S. enteritidis with regular consumption of slaughter meat and other product without proper disinfection and appropriate boiling, represent a serious public health risk in Akwa Ibom State. Demographic data obtained in this study showed that majority of the abattoir workers across the three districts were within the ages of 21 to 30 (33%), 39% were none graduate while 30.4% were secondary school leavers. Fever was recorded as the highest clinical signs and symptoms followed by headache, abdominal cramps, diarrhoea and vomiting. Generally, all the isolates identified as Salmonella were tested for their susceptibility to antimicrobial agents. The results showed that Chloramphenicol, Ciprofloxacin and Cefuroxine were 100% sensitive to S. gallinarum, S. paratyphi A, 93% susceptible to S. typhi and 80% to S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis. Whereas all isolates were 100% resistant to Septrin, Tetracycline and Ampicillin antibacterial agents used. The emergence of multiple drugs resistant Salmonella from abattoir workers shows that the continuous use of drugs in animal husbandry as growth promoters should be re-examined. Other factors as sources of Salmonella contamination in slaughter markets can be minimized by good hygienic practices and biosecurity measures.

PROBLEMS OF DRUG THERAPY IN PATIENTS WITH TYFOID FEVER AT THE INSTALLATION OF AT-TAQWA ISLAM HOSPITAL GUMAWANG BELITANG PERIOD JANUARY - DECEMBER 2021

Salmonella typhi is a bacterium that causes typhoid fever infection which attacks the digestive tract. Indonesia is an endemic disease, the incidence of typhoid fever cases is 358 to 810 cases per 100,000 population with a percentage of 64%. to find out the treatment of typhoid fever patients who are indicated not to pay attention to the PCNE V9.00 code, namely: there are symptoms that are not treated, to find out whether there are incidents that may be detrimental in the application of drug therapy, treatment that is not needed in treating typhoid fever patients at RSI At-Taqwa Gumawang Belitang. This study used a descriptive method, and data collection was carried out using a retrospective system from the medical records of typhoid fever patients who were hospitalized at the At-Taqwa Islamic Hospital Gumawang Belitang for the period January-December 2021. From medical record data that met the inclusion criteria, namely 80 patients ( 80%), found 14 cases (17.5%) who had problems with drug therapy, these cases were dominant in male patients, namely 43 patients (53.75%) than female patients, namely 37 patients (46.25%). the majority of these patients were aged less than 1 year to 50 years with a total of 68 patients (78.75%), the highest frequency of use of antibiotics was a single antibiotic in 73 patients (91.25%) while combination antibiotics were 7 patients (8.75%) ), the average length of stay was &lt;3 days for 43 patients (53.75%), while &gt; 3 days for 37 patients (46.25%), drug therapy problems according to PCNE V9.00 code, namely P2.1 with 7 cases (8.75%), P1.3 in 4 cases (5.00%), P3.2 in 3 cases (3.75%).

Buddha Basnyat—tackling typhoid and other infections in Nepal

Buddha Basnyat comes from a military family and grew up in Kathmandu, Nepal. “My father suggested military service might not be the best career for me, and I think he was right!”, Basnyat told The Lancet Infectious Diseases. But his inspiration for medicine came from an unusual source: the books of the Scottish physician-turned novelist, AJ Cronin. He explained: “In one book, The Citadel, the hero is a general practitioner based in Wales, UK, dealing with tuberculosis, typhoid, and other diseases consigned to the past in high-income countries, but that are seen every day in Nepal”.

The Incidence of Plasmodium Falciparum and Salmonella Typhii as Co-Infection among Residents of Idiroko, Ipokia Local Government Area of Ogun State, Nigeria

This study assessed the incidence of malaria and typhoid infection among adult residents in Idirokotaking from October 2020-October 2021. The study used retrospective analyses of relevant information indicating malaria and typhoid infections among adult residents in Idiroko at the health information department of the state hospital, Idiroko, Ogun State. The data were analyzed statistically and the empirical values were represented. One thousand and eight hundred and ten cases of incidence of malaria, typhoid and their co-infection were extracted for the study, 601(33.2%) cases indicated for malaria only, 433(23.9%) cases for typhoid only and 776 (42.9%) cases had an incidence of malaria and typhoid as co-infections. There is no significant association between increasing age and positivity to the malaria parasite in this study. Female respondents 341(18.8%) were more infected with malaria parasite than the males 260(14.4%) as elucidated by the study. Although the difference observed was not statistically significant. A high prevalence (24%) of Salmonella typhi infections was recorded and the study showed an infection rate was higher in females 322(17.6%) than males 111(6.1%). In comparison, malaria and typhoid as co-infection were higher in females 539(29.8%) than males 237(13.1%). In conclusion, the incidence of malaria and typhoid infection and, co-infection among the adult residents in the Idiroko area of Ogun State is significantly high. To reduce the incidence of typhoid fever and malaria as co-infection, it is necessary to discourage people from taking junk food, maintain adequate personal, and environmental sanitation and prevent mosquito bites through the use of the medicated net.

Lassa fever. Part 2. Laboratory diagnostics, treatment, development of medications

Globalization and high-speed means of transportation contribute to the spread of infections dangerous to humans. Airborne pathogens have pandemic potential as currently shown in case of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Natural focal Lassa fever (LF) common in West African countries, in 35 cases was registered in non-endemic geographical areas because any person infected with Lassa virus (LASV) is a long-term source of infection (up to two months). Cases of person-to-person infection in endemic territories are described. In Germany, the facts of secondary virus transmission from patients to doctors have been recorded during the examination and blood collection from an apparently healthy person as well as during the autopsy of a deceased subjects due to severe LF course. Nonspecific malaise symptoms in LF are also characteristic of numerous other diseases common on the African continent, e.g., malaria and typhoid fever or viral infections such as yellow fever, Chikungunya, dengue and Zika, monkey pox and Ebola virus disease. In this regard, there may be similar dermatological manifestations. Timely detection of cases and differential diagnosis are crucial to ensure safe patient care and use of affordable antiviral therapy for LL provided by the drug Ribavirin. Research methods for studying LASV use polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detecting viral RNA, electron microscopy, isolation of infectious virus cultured sensitive cells, indirect immunofluorescence reaction, enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) and immunochromatographic assays for the detection of antibodies and/or antigen as well as immunoblotting. Currently, test kits based on molecular and genetic methods are mainly used for LF laboratory diagnostics. Since the 1980s, ribavirin has been used to treat patients with LF. The serum accumulation of the drug in large quantities causes hemolysis, development of anemia and impaired renal function. In this regard, treatment options are being considered with decline in its concentration due to combined use with other antiviral drugs. A search for new therapeutic agents capable of inhibiting viral replication at disease early stage has been in progress due to lack of any approved vaccines.