Type-specific Antigen Research Articles

Ureaplasma Urealyticum and Male Infertility: An Animal Model/Ureaplasma urealyticum und männliche Infertilität - ein Tiermodell

Male Wistar rats were infected with Ureaplasma urealyticum, serotype 3 or 7, by injecting broth containing organisms into the urinary bladder following laparatomy. Animals were sacrificed 3, 7 and 21 days after infection. Ureaplasmas were detected in the organs of the genital tract by culture in 43% (serotype 3) and in 60% (serotype 7) of the animals. Type-specific ureaplasma antigen was detected in the genital organs in 44% (serotype 3) and 45% (serotype 7) of the animals. Control animals injected with sterile bouillon were negative for organisms and antigen. Male Wistar rats artificially infected with Ureaplasma urealyticum, serotype 3, were mated 3 and 6 months after infection with ureaplasma free female rats. The mating experiment revealed a smaller mean litter size and a lower birth weight in the offspring of infected males compared with the control animals, but no general influence on the fertility of infected animals.

Seroprevalence of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2 in a Population-Based Cohort in Japan

BackgroundThere have been few population-based studies of the seroprevalence and correlates of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) in Japan.MethodsWe enrolled a total of 1244 adults, aged 18–59 years, from a population-based cohort in southern Japan, and tested their serum samples using an ELISA kit containing HSV type-specific antigens to glycoproteins G1 and G2.ResultsThe seroprevalence of HSV-1 and HSV-2 was 55.4% and 7.4% in men and 63.3% and 9.3% in women, respectively. Overall, 4 percent of the participants (2.3% of men and 5.0% of women) were co-infected with HSV-1 and HSV-2. The seroprevalences of both HSV-1 and HSV-2 increased with age in both sexes, and were always higher among women than among men in each age bracket. The prevalence of HSV-2 infection among HSV-1 infected individuals was lower than that among uninfected individuals, both in men and women. Male current drinkers, and male and female current smokers, were more likely to be infected with HSV-1 and HSV-2, as compared to never drinkers and never smokers, respectively.ConclusionIt is hoped that the estimates produced in this study will help in understanding the burden of these infections in Japan.

Genotyping ofOrientia tsutsugamushifrom Humans with Scrub Typhus, Laos

To the Editor: Rickettsial diseases have been only recently identified as underrecognized but important causes of fever of unknown origin in Laos. In 2006, 63 (14.8%) of 427 adults with negative blood cultures admitted to Mahosot Hospital in Vientiane had scrub typhus, an infection caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi and transmitted by the bite of larval trombiculid mites (1). O. tsutsugamushi is characterized by a wide antigenic diversity, and isolates are conventionally classified on the basis of reactivity with hyperimmune serum against prototype strains (e.g., Karp, Kato, Gilliam, Kawasaki, Kuroki, or Shimogoshi). The 4 hypervariable regions within the 56-kDa type-specific antigen of O. tsutsugamushi, which is located on the outer membrane surface, are considered to play an essential role in type strain assignment (2). In the Lao study (1), in addition to acute-phase serum samples, a 5-mL blood sample anticoagulated with EDTA was collected at admission from all patients. After centrifugation, buffy coat of the serum sample was removed and stored at –80°C (1). DNA was extracted from buffy coat samples of 63 patients whose conditions were diagnosed by imunofluorescence assay as scrub typhus (3). Two amplification reactions were performed, a real-time quantitative PCR with a probe targeting the O. tsutsugamushi 47-kDa outer membrane protein gene with appropriate primers and probes (4) and a standard PCR targeting a 372-nt fragment of the 56-kDa protein gene (3). Buffy coat samples from 11 (17.5%) patients were positive for O. tsutsugamushi in the real-time quantitative PCR and 56-kDa antigen gene PCR (Table). All 11 patients were from Vientiane or Vientiane Province. PCR products for the 56-kDa gene fragments were purified and sequenced as described (3). Comparison (3,5) of amplicons for the 11 patients with each other and with GenBank sequences identified 6 genotypes. Percentages of nucleotide sequence similarity with other sequences available in GenBank ranged from 95.9% to 100% (Table). Interpretation of our results was also supported by recent phylogenetic studies that compared sequences of the entire 56-kDa type-specific antigen gene of isolates from Thailand (6). LaoUF238 and LaoUF220 genotypes clustered with those of strains related to the Karp serotype, and LaoUF136 and LaoUF187 clustered with genotypes of strains related to the Gilliam serotype (2). Other genotypes found in this study were grouped in 2 clusters that contained genotypes identified in Thailand (5) and Taiwan (7) that have not been linked to a reference serotype (Table). Table Serologic results for 11 patients from Laos positive by real-time quantitative PCR for the 47-kDa outer membrane protein and a PCR for a fragment of the 56-kDa protein–encoding gene of Orientia tsutsugamushi* Detection of O. tsutsugamushi in humans in Laos provides useful information on genotypes prevalent in this country. Our results were confirmed by using 2 target genes in 2 PCRs. No differences were found between the number of days of fever in 11 PCR-positive patients and number of days of fever in 52 PCR-negative patients. However, the PCR-negative patients may not have had bacteremia at the time of sample collection. Diversity of O. tsutsugamushi genotypes found in Laos includes genotypes closely related to genotypes from Thailand and Taiwan. This diversity raises doubt about usual concepts because it has been thought that O. tsutsugamushi genotypes are restricted to specific geographic areas and to specific mite vectors (8). Furthermore, these results might have clinical repercussions because sequence variations within the 56-kDa protein gene correlate with antigenic diversity of genotypes of O. tsutsugamushi. This finding is supported by data for sequences of the entire 56-kDa gene of different isolates (6) and for monoclonal and human and animal polyclonal antibodies used to map antigenic differences among isolates with known sequence variations (9). Although our data are preliminary, diversity of nucleotide sequences of the 56-kDa protein–encoding gene in isolates from Laos might limit sensitivity and specificity of serologic methods. A recent study showed that addition of a serotype to the panel of O. tsutsugamushi antigens used for testing improved sensitivity of antibody detection in patients in Thailand (10). We demonstrated that, in analysis of sera in the diagnosis of scrub typhus contracted in Laos, antigen pools should contain at least Karp and Gilliam strain antigens. Furthermore, new genotypes identified in patients in Laos might be related to previously unrecognized type strains. However, cross-reactivity with Gilliam, Kato, and Kawasaki serotypes enabled serologic diagnosis in the initial study, including 1 patient infected with a Karp-related bacteria (1). Phylogenetic studies based on larger fragments of sequences of the 56-kDa protein–encoding gene and of other genes of O. tsutsugamushi would help to better characterize the new genotypes identified in our study and their relationship with known serotypes. Expanding the panel of antigens used to test patients suspected of having scrub typhus to take into account local antigenic diversity would improve sensitivity of serologic assays for this disease.

Fibronectin Facilitates the Invasion ofOrientia tsutsugamushiinto Host Cells through Interaction with a 56‐kDa Type‐Specific Antigen

Orientia tsutsugamushi, the causative agent of scrub typhus, is an obligate intracellular bacterium. The pathogen's mechanism of cellular invasion is poorly characterized. Through ligand immunoblots, glutathione S-transferase (GST) pull-down assays, and in vitro inhibition assays of intracellular invasion, a bacterial ligand was identified and was shown to interact with fibronectin (Fn) to enhance the intracellular invasion of O. tsutsugamushi. O. tsutsugamushi can bind to immobilized Fn in vitro, and exogenous Fn stimulates bacterial invasion of mammalian host cells. Bacterial invasion in the presence of Fn was abrogated by the addition of Arg-Gly-Asp peptides or by an anti-alpha5beta1 integrin antibody. Through a ligand immunoblot and GST pull-down assay, a 56-kDa type-specific antigen (TSA56) was identified as the bacterial ligand responsible for the interaction with Fn. Antigenic domain III and the adjacent C-terminal region (aa 243-349) of TSA56 interacted with Fn. Furthermore, we found that the enhanced invasion of the pathogen was abrogated by the addition of purified recombinant peptides derived from TSA56. Fn facilitates the invasion of O. tsutsugamushi through its interaction with TSA56.

Genetic typing of the 56-kDa type-specific antigen gene of contemporaryOrientia tsutsugamushiisolates causing human scrub typhus at two sites in north-eastern and western Thailand

Orientia tsutsugamushi is the causative agent of scrub typhus, a major cause of febrile illness in the rural areas of Southeast Asia. Twenty-three strains of O. tsutsugamushi were isolated from patients with scrub typhus in north-east (Udorn Thani province) and western Thailand (Tak province) between 2003 and 2005. The isolates were characterized by sequencing the entire ORF of the 56-kDa-type-specific antigen gene, followed by phylogenetic analysis. The majority (15/23) of isolates clustered with the Karp-type strain, six with a Gilliam-type strain and one each with the TA716- and TA763-type strains. Overall, there was considerable diversity in sequence, comparable to that seen in strains from across the rest of the scrub typhus-endemic world. There was no significant difference in the distributions of strains between the two provinces (P=0.08, Fisher's exact) nor a temporal change in distribution with year of isolation (P=0.80, Fisher's exact). Within this diversity there were also examples of isolates with identical 56-kDa genotypes that were cultured from patients from the same geographical areas.

Relationships between emm and multilocus sequence types within a global collection of Streptococcus pyogenes

BackgroundThe M type-specific surface protein antigens encoded by the 5' end of emm genes are targets of protective host immunity and attractive vaccine candidates against infection by Streptococcus pyogenes, a global human pathogen. A history of genetic change in emm was evaluated for a worldwide collection of > 500 S. pyogenes isolates that were defined for genetic background by multilocus sequence typing of housekeeping genes.ResultsOrganisms were categorized by genotypes that roughly correspond to throat specialists, skin specialists, and generalists often recovered from infections at either tissue site. Recovery of distant clones sharing the same emm type was ~4-fold higher for skin specialists and generalists, as compared to throat specialists. Importantly, emm type was often a poor marker for clone. Recovery of clones that underwent recombinational replacement with a new emm type was most evident for the throat and skin specialists. The average ratio of nonsynonymous substitutions per nonsynonymous site (Ka) and synonymous substitutions per synonymous site (Ks) was 4.9, 1.5 and 1.3 for emm types of the throat specialist, skin specialist and generalist groups, respectively.ConclusionData indicate that the relationships between emm type and genetic background differ among the three host tissue-related groups, and that the selection pressures acting on emm appear to be strongest for the throat specialists. Since positive selection is likely due in part to a protective host immune response, the findings may have important implications for vaccine design and vaccination strategies.

Novel Orthoreovirus from Diseased Crow, Finland

Novel Orthoreovirus from Diseased Crow, Finland

Developing an ELISA using serotype-specific antigens from selected pneumococcal strains of own selection

Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in infants and elderly people. Pneumococcal strains possess a polysaccharide capsule, and 90 different serotypes have been identified. The pneumococcal ELISA suggested by World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines is based on capsular serotypes included in the 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine (Pneumovax ®). Pneumococcal antigens were developed and applied in an ELISA, which elicited a low baseline cross-reaction with the common cell wall polysaccharide (C-Ps). The aim of this study was to develop an ELISA using type-specific antigens from S. pneumoniae strains with serotypes of own selection in order to quantify type-specific pneumococcal antibodies in human serum.

Chlamydia trachomatispolymorphic membrane protein D is a species-common pan-neutralizing antigen

Infections caused by the obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis have a marked impact on human health. C. trachomatis serovariants are the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted disease and infectious preventable blindness. Despite decades of effort, there is no practical vaccine against C. trachomatis diseases. Here we report that all C. trachomatis reference serotypes responsible for sexually transmitted disease and blinding trachoma synthesize a highly conserved surface-exposed antigen termed polymorphic membrane protein D (PmpD). We show that Ab specific to PmpD are neutralizing in vitro. We also present evidence that Ab against serovariable-neutralizing targets, such as the major outer membrane protein, block PmpD neutralization. This finding suggests that a decoy-like immune evasion strategy may be active in vivo whereby immunodominant type-specific surface antigens block the neutralizing ability of species-common PmpD Ab. Collectively, these results show that PmpD is a previously uncharacterized C. trachomatis species-common pan-neutralizing target. Moreover, a vaccine protocol using recombinant PmpD to elicit neutralizing Ab in the absence of immunodominant type-specific Ab might be highly efficacious and surpass the level of protection achieved through natural immunity.

Serological Characterization of Streptococcus iniae Strains Isolated from Cultured Fish in Japan

Streptococcus iniae is known as an important marine and freshwater fish pathogen worldwide. In this paper, we characterized two serological phenotypes in Japanese S. iniae isolates, mainly from Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. The two phenotypes, designated K+ and K-, were distinguished by the presence or absence of capsule. K- cells agglutinated both with anti-K- and K+ type sera, whereas K+ cells agglutinated only with anti-K+ type serum. These two types were indistinguishable by any ordinary biological or biochemical characterization tests. Immunodiffusion test demonstrated the common antigens and a K+ type-specific antigen in the autoclave-extracts of cells. Capsule was observed on the K+ cells, from which acidic polysaccharides were detected. Strains of K+ type were virulent for Japanese flounder, whereas those of K- type were avirulent. There is a direct relationship between the serological phenotypes and the existence of capsule in S. iniae with link to its virulence.

KSHV/HHV-8 associated lymph node based lymphomas in HIV seronegative subjects. Report of two cases with anaplastic large cell morphology and plasmablastic immunophenotype

Background: Kaposi sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV)/human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) associated lymphomas, which often develop in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients with advanced AIDS, present predominantly as primary effusion lymphoma...

Antibiotic treatment and the diagnosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae in lower respiratory tract infections in adults

To analyze the possible influence of antibiotic treatment on the results of different diagnostic tests for the diagnosis of lower respiratory tract infections with Streptococcus pneumoniae. A prospective cohort of 159 unselected adult immunocompetent patients admitted to Silkeborg County Hospital in Denmark with community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections underwent microbiological investigations with fiber-optic bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage, blood and sputum culture and urine antigen test for type-specific polysaccharide capsular antigens of S. pneumoniae. When stratified for antibiotic treatment prior to microbiological sampling, three different groups of patients with documented or probable infection with S. pneumoniae could be identified. The first group comprised 14 patients who were culture positive in one or more culture tests, where most (11/14) did not receive any antibiotic treatment within 24 hours of sampling. The second group consisted of nine patients with a positive urine antigen test where 8/9 and 9/9 received antibiotic treatment 24 and 48 hours, respectively, prior to urine sampling. Only a single patient was positive in both systems, making a total of 22 patients with documented pneumococcal infection. As a positive culture test was dependent on the absence of antibiotic treatment, whereas a positive urine antigen test depended on antibiotic treatment within 48 hours, the two tests were complementary in the diagnosis of infection with S. pneumoniae. The third group of patients with probable pneumococcal infection were identified as 26% and 20% of the remaining 137 patients with unknown or known non-pneumococcal etiology, respectively, who received recent antibiotic treatment within 2-4 weeks of diagnostic sampling. By comparison, 0% (p < 0.01) with documented pneumococcal infection received antibiotic treatment in weeks 2-4 prior to microbiological sampling. As such a further eight patients should be expected to have infection with S. pneumoniae but would test negative in both culture tests and the urine antigen test because of antibiotic treatment within weeks 2-4 prior to sampling. The diagnosis of infection with S. pneumoniae is very dependent on whether or not recent (within 2-4 weeks) or immediate (within 48 hours) antibiotic treatment has been given prior to microbiological sampling of patients. The results suggest an optimized diagnostic strategy with, if possible, sampling for culture prior to antibiotic treatment, while sampling for pneumococcal antigens should wait 24-48 hours for antibiotic treatment.

No evidence for adaptation of current egg drop syndrome 1976 viruses to chickens.

In order to determine whether the current field strains of egg drop syndrome (EDS) 1976 viruses adapt to chickens, we compared the growth efficiency of three Japanese field strains (PA-1/79, AWI/98, Gifu/01) in chicken and duck embryo liver cells. The growth efficiency in chicken or duck embryo liver cells was almost similar in these strains. The fiber protein may carry the type-specific antigen and the hemagglutination activity, and hexon protein may contain the subgroup-specific antigenic determinants. Therefore, the fiber head and hexon loop 1 DNA domain sequences of the six Japanese field strains UPA-1/79, ME/80, 44/81, Kyoto/91, AWI/98, Gifu/01) were compared, but these DNA domains were identical among the six field strains. Our data suggested that the EDS virus was maintained without discernible changes for the last two decades in the field.

Phylogenetic characterization of Orientia tsutsugamushi isolated in Taiwan according to the sequence homologies of 56-kDa type-specific antigen genes.

Fourteen strains of Orientia tsutsugamushi isolated in Taiwan were characterized by sequencing 56-kDa type-specific antigen genes and patterns of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) predicted by a computer program. The strains showed high varieties in sequence homologies and were classified to 10 types by predicted patterns of RFLP. Furthermore, all Taiwan strains were not identical in typing with strains analyzed previously. These results suggest that there are various types of O. tsutsugamushi in Taiwan that are different from those distributed in other countries.

SHORT REPORT: VARIATION IN THE 56-KD TYPE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN GENE OF ORIENTIA TSUTSUGAMUSHI ISOLATED FROM PATIENTS IN THAILAND

The sequences of a 300-base pair region of the 56-kD type-specific antigen gene from 12 Orientia tsutsugamushi isolates from Thailand were compared with isolates from other regions in Asia. A high degree of heterogeneity was found among the 12 Thai isolates, with the C3 strain most commonly found. The abundance of the C3 strain of O. tsutsugamushi is of particular concern because doxycycline and chloramphenicol resistance have previously been reported in this strain.

Epidemiology of genital herpes (HSV-2) among brothel based female sex workers in Bangladesh.

A prospective study was carried out to determine the prevalence of herpes simplex type 2 (HSV-2) in Bangladeshi female sex workers. Serum samples were collected from 463 female prostitutes and tested by ELISA using type specific antigens (gG1 and gG2). There were 405 (87.5%) samples seropositive for both HSV-1 and HSV-2, 24 (5.2%) samples were seropositive for only HSV-1, a further 33 (7.1%) samples were seropositive for HSV-2 only and one sample was found to be negative. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing was also performed and all samples were found to be negative. Surveillance studies are needed for development and application of control and preventative measures. The prostitute population in Bangladesh is particularly at risk of acquiring and transmitting HSV-2 and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).

Herpes simplex virus infection of the human eye induces a compartmentalized virus-specific B cell response.

Intraocular infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV) can cause uveitis, a potentially sight-threatening disease. The disease is characterized by an ocular infiltration of inflammatory cells such as macrophages and B and T cells. The characteristics of the local humoral and cellular immune responses elicited on intraocular HSV infection are poorly understood. The local HSV-specific antibody production, which are used routinely for confirmation of a clinical diagnosis of herpetic uveitis, has never been analyzed in detail. This study analyzed the humoral immune response against HSV type 1 (HSV-1) in paired samples of intraocular fluid and serum of patients with intraocular herpesvirus infection. In addition, the B cell epitope distribution on a single HSV-1 type-specific antigen, glycoprotein G, was compared for these paired samples. The results presented here indicate that the inflamed eyes of patients with HSV-induced uveitis display a compartmentalized B cell response directed toward the triggering virus.

Group B Streptococcal Infections

1. Samuel P. Gotoff, MD* 1. *Professor and Chairman, Department of Pediatrics, Rush Children’s Hospital, Chicago, IL After completing this article, readers should be able to: 1. Delineate the epidemiologic factors in the transmission of group B Streptococcus (GBS) neonatal infections. 2. List the major factors that increase the risk of neonatal GBS infections. 3. Describe four clinical presentations of neonatal GBS infections. 4. List the laboratory methods for isolating and identifying GBS in mixed flora, normally sterile biologic fluids, and a patient treated with a penicillin. The group B Streptococcus (GBS) initially was isolated by Nocard in 1887 and described as Streptococcus agalactiae , a cause of bovine mastitis. The organism is an encapsulated gram-positive diplococcus that usually produces a narrow zone of beta-hemolysis on blood agar. Most strains are resistant to bacitracin. The streptococci were classified serologically in the 1930s by Lancefield, based on cell wall polysaccharides. The GBS organisms are differentiated further by type-specific capsular polysaccharides and protein antigens. Current serotypes include: Ia, Ib, Ia/c, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII. Since the mid-1960s, GBS has become the major cause of bacterial infections in the perinatal period, including bacteremia, amnionitis, endometritis, and urinary tract infection in pregnant women as well as focal and systemic infections in newborns. It is a relatively rare cause of infection in older children and nonpregnant adults. GBS early-onset disease (EOD) occurs within the first week after birth, usually before 72 hours. GBS late-onset disease (LOD) accounts for about 20% of cases, usually occurring between 1 to 4 weeks after birth, but rarely seen up to 6 months of age. Late, late-onset infections, which occur from 1 to 6 months of age, and infections in nonpregnant adults often are associated with immunodeficiency. All of the serotypes have been associated with GBS EOD, with Ia, II, III, and V being most common in the United States. GBS LOD is caused by serotype III …

Use of a fragment of glycoprotein G-2 produced in the baculovirus expression system for detecting herpes simplex virus type 2-specific antibodies.

Fragments of glycoprotein G (gG-2(281-594His)), comprising residues 281 to 594 of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), glycoprotein G of HSV-1 (gG-1(t26-189His)), and glycoprotein D of HSV-1 (gD-1(1-313)), were expressed in the baculovirus expression system to develop an assay for the detection of HSV-1 and HSV-2 type-specific antibodies. The expression of the gG-1(t26-189His) and gG-2(281-594His) fragments was analyzed by Western blotting using monoclonal antibodies LP10 and AP1, respectively. The molecular masses of the major products of gG-1(t26-189His) and the fragment of gG-2(281-594His) were 36 to 39 kDa and 64 to 72 kDa, respectively. Human sera positive for HSV-1 reacted with gG-1(t26-189His), sera positive for HSV-2 reacted with the gG-2(281-594His) fragment, and sera positive for both types reacted with gG-1(t26-189His) and gG-2(281-594His) in Western blotting. The human sera recognized polypeptides of gG-2(281-594His) with molecular masses of 57 to 67 and 120 to 150 kDa and additional faint bands of 21, 29, and 45 kDa. The recombinant gG-1(t26-189His) and the recombinant gG-2(281-594His) fragment were used as type-specific antigens for the detection of HSV-1- and HSV-2-specific antibody responses in human sera, respectively. As type-common antigens, an extract of HSV-1-infected Vero cells and recombinant gD-1(1-313) were used. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect type-specific antibodies was developed, and the sensitivity and specificity were evaluated by comparison with commercial tests by using sera obtained from different sources. The sensitivity and specificity were 91.5 and 95.5%, respectively, compared to the Gull assay. The gG-2(281-594His) fragment can be obtained in relatively large quantities at low cost.

Cytokines, chemokines, and cytokine receptors in human microglia.

Enriched populations of human microglial cells were isolated from mixed cell cultures prepared from embryonic human telencephalon tissues. Human microglial cells exhibited cell type-specific antigens for macrophage-microglia lineage cells including CD11b (Mac-1), CD68, B7-2 (CD86), HLA-ABC, HLA-DR and ricinus communis aggulutinin lectin-1 (RCA-1), and actively phagocytosed latex beads. Gene expression and protein production of cytokines, chemokines and cytokine/chemokine receptors were investigated in the purified populations of human microglia. Normal unstimulated human microglia expressed constitutively mRNA transcripts for interleukin- 1beta (IL-1beta) -6, -8, -10, -12, -15, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha), MIP-1beta, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), while treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or amyloid beta peptides (Abeta) led to increased expression of mRNA levels of IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, TNF-alpha, MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta, and MCP-1. Human microglia, in addition, expressed mRNA transcripts for IL-1RI, IL-1RII, IL-5R, IL-6R, IL-8R, IL-9R, IL-10R, IL-12R, IL-13R, and IL-15R. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) showed increased protein levels in culture media of IL-1beta, IL-8, TNF-alpha, and MIP-1alpha in human microglia following treatment with LPS or Abeta. Increased TNF-alpha release from human microglia following LPS treatment was completely inhibited with IL-10 pretreatment, but not with IL-6, IL-9, IL-12, IL-13, or transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta). Present results should help in understanding the basic microglial biology, but also the pathophysiology of activated microglia in neurological diseases such as Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, Huntington disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, stroke, and neurotrauma.