Two-step Esterification Process Research Articles

Experimental Investigation for Determining an Ideal Algal Biodiesel-Diesel Blend to Improve the Performance and Mitigate Emissions Using a Response Surface Methodology.

The ongoing depletion of the world's fossil fuel sources and environmental damage has compelled the quest for alternative energy. Excellent characteristics of biodiesel include its renewable nature, safety, absence of sulfur, environmental advantages, and biodegradability, which can eradicate the above problems. In this study, algal oil was characterized to obtain the fatty acid profile, and the free fatty acid value of algal oil suggested a two-step process of esterification and transesterification for efficient biodiesel production. The performance and emission results of biodiesel and its blends (B10, B20, and B30) were investigated in a constant speed, single-cylinder, 4-stroke, 3.5 kW compression ignition engine at different loads for arriving at an appropriate fuel blend ratio. The response surface methodology technique is used to predict the ideal composition of microalgae-diesel using the experimental data with due weightage for the optimization criterion. The predicted blend ratio of B25 was tested on the engine and authenticated. The findings recorded an improvement in brake thermal efficiency to 31.42% and reduction in brake specific energy consumption to 9.82 MJ/kW h, unburned hydrocarbon to 85 ppm, carbon monoxide to 0.164% v/v, carbon dioxide to 4.115% v/v, nitrogen oxides to 691 ppm, and smoke opacity to 16.93%.

A comparative analysis of exergy using dual blends of biodiesel in a DI engine

The scarcity of petroleum fuels and pollution concerns has led to the search for alternate fuels. In this investigation, cottonseed and Simarouba oils are transesterified to produce the corresponding biodiesels. The esterification and transesterification were carried out in the presence of heterogeneous catalyst MgPO4. The various properties of biodiesel are determined in the laboratory. Vateria indica is a species endemic to India that belongs to the Dipterocarpaceae family. The oil of Vateria indica is obtained by an aqueous extraction method. This oil is transesterified to obtain the biodiesel by a two-step process of esterification followed by transesterification. This biodiesel is blended with diesel in 10% and 20% volumetric proportions. The cottonseed and Simarouba biodiesels are blended in equal proportions with diesel and tested for performance and exergy analysis along with Vateria indica blends. It is found from performance and exergy analysis that biodiesel blends performed better than diesel.

Experimental evaluation of diesel engine operating with A TERNARY BLEND (BIODIESEL-DIESEL-ETHANOL)

The present investigation aims to study the future potential fuel of a non-edible tamanu oil (calophyllum inophyllum). The raw oil of tamanu oil was converted into biodiesel in two-step esterification process and different test fuel blends with biodiesel were prepared with conventional diesel and ethanol as an additive to evaluate its effect on engine characteristics such as BP, BTE, and BSFC, EGT and smoke density on a 4.4 kW rated power, single-cylinder four-stroke of constant rpm C.I. engineat different loads (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of rated power). The fuel blends were prepared with biodiesel in the ratio of 40%,100% coded as B40 and B100 respectively along with diesel fuel and ethanol as an additive in the fixed ratio of 10%, 15%, and 20%. It was found that B40E20D40 showed a reduction in smoke density and BSFC of 14.28% and 5.9% respectively, 18.3% increase in BTE and 3.73% reduction in exhaust gas temperature at full load whereas B100 showed a maximum reduction in smoke density of 15.97% with 4.53% increase in BSFC and a marginal increase in EGT of 0.53%. B40E20D40 gave a better performance in a diesel engine from the perspective of minimum BSFC, lower exhaust gas temperature and higher BTE among all other blends.

Enhanced ultrasonic assisted biodiesel production from meat industry waste (pig tallow) using green copper oxide nanocatalyst: Comparison of response surface and neural network modelling

In order to reduce the fossil fuel usage, to meet huge energy demand and lessen air pollution, a green, clean and sustainable biofuel is the only alternative. Biodiesel production becomes cheaper when we use a cheap precursor, eco-friendly catalyst and a proper process. Pig tallow from the meat industry containing high fatty acid can be utilized as an effective precursor for biodiesel preparation. This study produced biodiesel from pig tallow oil via ultrasonic assisted and CuO catalysed two-step esterification process. Cinnamomum tamala (C. tamala) extract was utilized for CuO nanoparticles preparation and characterized using infra-red spectra, x-ray diffraction, particle size distribution, scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Biodiesel production was modelled using Box-Behnken design (BBD) and artificial neural network (ANN), in the variables range of ultrasonication (US) time (20–40 min), CuO nanocatalyst load (1–3 wt%), and the methanol to pre-treated PTO molar ratio (10:1–30:1). Statistical analysis proved that the ANN modelling was better than BBD. Optimal yield of 97.82% obtained using Genetic Algorithm (GA) at US time: 35.36 min, CuO catalyst load: 2.07 wt%, and the molar ratio: 29.87:1. Comparison with previous studies proved that ultrasonication significantly reduced the CuO nanocatalyst load, and increased the molar ratio and improved the process.

Biobased long-chain aliphatic polyesters of 1,12-dodecanedioic acid with a variety of diols: Odd-even effect and mechanical properties

A series of biobased long-chain aliphatic polyesters with high molecular weight were synthesized by a two-step process of esterification and polycondensation from 1,12-dodecanedioic acid and diols with nine different carbon chain lengths from C2 to C10. The influences of the chain length of diols and its even-odd effect on the chemical structure, basic thermal properties and thermal stability, crystalline structure and morphology, as well as mechanical properties of the obtained polyesters were systemically investigated. Besides the common even-odd effect was observed impacting on the thermal properties, it was found that poly(ethylene dodecanedioate) (P2D) and poly(propylene dodecanedioate) (P3D) were peculiar in thermal properties and thermal stability as well as crystalline structure and morphology, probably due to their the unique short chain conformations. Furthermore, these polyesters showed PE-like mechanical properties with appropriate tensile strength and excellent elongation depending on the used diols. The elongation at break of the odd-numbered series was significantly longer than that of the even-numbered series, of which poly(nonylene dodecanedioate) (P9D) has the highest elongation at break, up to 1972%.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE VARIATION ON THE PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL USING NEEM OIL

Biodiesel was produced from neem seed oil via a two-step process of esterification and transesterififcation reactions. The transesterification was carried out using CH3ONa as catalyst with ethanol as the alcohol. The reaction temperature was varied between 30, 40, 50, 60, and 700C, while all other process parameters were kept constant. From the results obtained, a significant change in biodiesel yield (73-79%) from 30-50oC temperatures was observed. At a temperature of 60oC, a good yield of 94% was obtained which was observed at a temperature below the boiling point of the alcohol used. At 70oC biodiesel yield of 67% was obtained; this indicates a drop in biodiesel yield. Further flash point of 149.60C indicated that the biodiesel produced is within the specification of ASTM D6751. Also, the high value of flash point indicated that the fuel is safe for handling as it exceeds the minimun ASTM requirement (130min). It is worthy to mention that other properties such as viscosity, pour point and cloud point etc investigated also presented good values which were within ASTM D6751. The formation of biodiesel was confirmed by FT-IR analysis. The conversion of the ester functional group into methyl esters in biodiesel verified the success of the reaction.

Process development of two-step esterification plus catalyst solution recycling on waste vegetable oil possessing high free fatty acid

In biodiesel production, cost of chemicals is usually of concern and any amount of reduction would be welcomed. Inferior inputs, such as waste vegetable oils (WVOs), if can be upgraded through a suitable process would bring about additional benefits. In this research, a ‘novel’ two-step esterification process plus catalyst solution recycling on WVO having high free fatty acid (FFA) content was developed in an effort to reduce usage of chemicals. In the first step esterification, FFA was esterified by methanol (MeOH) employing sulfuric acid (H2SO4) catalyst. In the second step, the MeOH-rich phase was recycled back as catalyst solution to the first step esterification. The final FFA concentration was 0.53wt.% which is within the recommended standard of 1wt.%. The optimum condition used in the final methanol-and-acid-recycle experiment was investigated from a three-set experiment: first esterification stand-alone; second esterification stand-alone; and conventional two-step esterification, and material balances. The advantage of this novel two-step esterification process plus catalyst solution recycling over a normal conventional two-step method is a 27% reduction in methanol consumption and a 23% reduction of sulfuric acid. Inferior quality WVOs can thus be potential low-cost feedstocks in biodiesel production using this process.

Performance Evaluation of CI Engine on Fuel Blends of Neem Oil Biodiesel and Diesel

In the present study, biodiesel is produced from neem oil by two-step esterification process. The neem oil ethyl ester (NOEE)–diesel blends are prepared by blending 10 to 100% NOEE with diesel. The blends containing 10 to 100% ester have their kinematic viscosity, cloud and pour point and flash and fire point compatible with diesel. The performance test of 4.4-kW diesel engine on fuel blends of neem oil biodiesel and diesel has carried out in terms of brake power, fuel consumption, brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and brake thermal efficiency. Brake power of all the blends was found comparable with diesel, whereas fuel consumption, BSFC and brake thermal efficiency of 100% NOEE were found higher than the diesel. NOEE20 as fuel the brake thermal efficiency is found to be highest, and BSFC was found to be lowest on this blend. NOEE100 could be used as fuel with some modification in engine. Performance of NOEE20 is better than other blend so it could be used as future fuel.

The performance and exhaust emissions investigation of a diesel engine using γ-Al2O3 nanoparticle additives to biodiesel

ABSTRACTPresently, the world faces a major crisis of energy demand. An increase in the petroleum price and exhaustion of fossil fuel resources make it more concerning. In this scenario, the usage of biodiesels derived from vegetable oils is considered a promising alternate fuel. The present study deals with the extraction of biodiesel from palm oil methyl ester (PME), which was derived from palm seed oil by the two-step esterification process. The two-step process consists of acid-catalyzed pretreatment, followed by alkaline-catalyzed transesterification. The extracted biodiesel was tested on a single-cylinder four-stroke direct-injection water-cooled diesel engine at a constant speed of 1500 rpm at various loads. Further, the performance and exhaust emissions of the engine were also studied at different dosage levels of γ-Al2O3 nanoparticle additive. The results showed that the brake thermal efficiency was improved by 8% when the nanoparticle additive dosage level was varied from 25 to 100 ppm, and a maximum improvement was observed at dosing levels of 25 and 75 ppm. Specific fuel consumption was reduced up to 0.05 kg/kWh at 80% load with the addition of 25 ppm. The carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions were reduced to a greater extent with the addition of γ-Al2O3 nanoparticle additive, when compared to the biodiesel without γ-Al2O3 nanoparticle at all load conditions of the engine. The dosage of nanoparticle to biodiesel fuel results in appreciably improved engine efficiencies, lower values of smoke, and lower CO and HC emissions. Thus, the experimental results proved that nanoparticle-added PME is one of the most suitable alternatives to diesel fuel.

Biodegradable poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene dimerized fatty acid)s: Synthesis, crystallization, mechanical properties, and rheology

Poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene dimerized fatty acid) (P(BS-co-BDFA)) copolyesters were synthesized from succinic acid (SA) and dimerized fatty acid (DFA) with 1,4-butanediol (BDO) through a two-step process of esterification and polycondensation. The polyester compositions and physical properties of copolyesters were investigated by GPC, 1H NMR and 13C NMR, DSC, WAXD, DMA, TGA, tensile and rheology test. The melting temperature (Tm), and crystallization temperature (Tc) decreased gradually as the content of DFA monomer increased. P(BS-co-BDFA) copolyesters showed the same crystal structure as the PBS homopolyester. Besides, TGA results indicated that P(BS-co-BDFA)s were of higher thermal stabilities. Moreover, it was found that the synthesized P(BS-co-BDFA)s showed the maximum elongation at break (591%) as the DFA contents were 10 mol%. Rheology analysis indicated that the viscoelastic behavior of the polyesters greatly depended on the molecular weight of polyesters.

Experimental study on the performance and emission measures of direct injection diesel engine with Kapok methyl ester and its blends

In this study, Kapok methyl ester was derived from Kapok seed oil by the two-step esterification process. The two-step process consists of acid-catalyzed pretreatment, followed by alkaline-catalyzed transesterification. The experimental investigation was carried out in a single-cylinder direct injection diesel engine, and the performance and exhaust emissions of the engine were also studied for the different blends of Kapok methyl ester. The results showed that the exhaust gas temperature and specific fuel consumption are increased for rich blends of Kapok methyl ester, but the brake thermal efficiency is decreased for the same blends. The NOx emission is higher than that of diesel at all load conditions of the engine. The lean blend of the Kapok methyl ester has appreciable engine efficiencies, lower values of smoke, and lower CO and HC emissions. Thus, the experimental results proved that the Kapok methyl ester is one of the most suitable alternatives to diesel fuel.

Water and corrosion resistance of epoxy–acrylic–amine waterborne coatings: Effects of resin molecular weight, polar group and hydrophobic segment

A two-step esterification process is developed for the synthesis of epoxy–acrylic-grafted-copolymer waterborne resins. The effect of synthesis parameters on water and corrosion resistance of the waterborne coatings is investigated. The results reveal that moderate increasing of the resin molecular weight (<8000Da) and carboxyl content (<27wt.%) increased the crosslinking property, thereby improved the anticorrosion performance of the coatings. Longer epoxy-octanoic hydrophobic chains can provide stronger shielding effect on the hydrophilic portion of the polymer matrixes. The polar group content in a waterborne resin can be optimized for better anticorrosion performance, whereas the optimal value is coating-specific.

Synthesis and characterization of polyester copolymers based on poly(butylene succinate) and poly(ethylene glycol)

A series of polyester copolymers was synthesized from 1,4-succinic acid with 1,4-butanediol and poly(ethylene glycol) through a two-step process of esterification and polycondensation in this article. The composition and physical properties of copolyesters were investigated via GPC, 1HNMR, DSC and PLM. The copolymer composition was in good agreement with that expected from the feed composition of the reactants. The melting temperature (Tm), crystallization temperature (Tc), and crystallinity (Xc) of these copolyesters decreased gradually as the content of PEG unit increased. Otherwise, experimental results also showed that the contents of PEG in copolymers had an effect on the molecular weight, distribution, thermal properties, hydrolysis degradation properties, and crystalline morphology of polyester copolymers.

Performance and Emission Analysis of C.I.Engine with Kapok Methyl Ester and its Blends

Current demands on renewable alternative fuel, biodiesel claims considerable significance. Biodiesel can be produced from any type of vegetable oils but yielding is determined by its free fatty acid (FFA) content. The alkaline-catalyzed esterification is not suitable for the unrefined vegetable oil which has high acid content. Hence, two-step esterification process is used to derive the kapok methyl ester due to its high FFA value. The biodiesel production in the two step process consists of acid-catalyzed pretreatment followed by an alkaline-catalyzed transesterificatin. In this study, experimental investigations are carried out in compression ignition engine to analyze the properties, performance and emissions characteristics of different blends of kapok methyl ester and compared with diesel. The exhaust gas temperature and specific fuel consumption are increased with increase of load and amount of biodiesel. The CO2 emission is slightly higher and NOx emission is about 22 percentage higher than that of the diesel at all the loads of engine. However, lower biodiesel blends showed reasonable efficiencies, lower value of smoke, CO and HC emissions.

Synthesis of biodiesel from Neem oil using sulfated zirconia via tranesterification

Sulfated zirconia (SZ) is a widely used catalyst, which is synthesized by a solvent free method and the synthesized catalyst has been characterized. Neem Methyl Ester (Biodiesel) was prepared by a two-step process of esterification and transesterification from Neem oil with methanol in the presence of catalyst. Acid catalyst was used for the esterification and alkali catalyst (KOH) for the transesterification reaction. Optimal Free Fatty Acid (FFA) conversion was achieved using 1 wt% SZ as an acid catalyst with a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 9:1, temperature of 65oC and reaction time of 2 h. The acid value was reduced to 94% of the raw oil (24.76 mg KOH/g), which confirmed the conversion. Consequently, this pretreatment reduces the overall complexity of the process and a conversion efficiency of 95% is achieved when pretreated oil reacts with methanol in the presence of KOH.

Synthesis and characterization of the biodegradable copolymers from succinic acid and adipic acid with 1,4‐butanediol

Biodegradable homopolyesters such as poly(butylene succinate) (PBSU) and poly(butylene adipate) (PBAD) and copolyesters such as poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene adipate) (PBSA) were synthesized, respectively, from succinic acid (SA) and adipic acid (AA) with 1,4-butanediol through a two-step process of esterification and deglycolization. The polyester compositions and physical properties of both homopolyesters and copolyesters were investigated by 1H– and 13C–NMR, DSC, GPC, WAXD, and optical polarizing microscopy. The melting point (Tm) of these copolyesters decreased gradually as the contents of butylene adipate increased and the glass-transition temperature (Tg) of these copolyesters decreased linearly as the contents of the adipoyl unit increased. PBSA copolyesters showed two types of XRD patterns of PBSU and PBAD homopolyesters. Furthermore, the biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation of the high molecular weight PBSU homopolyester, PBAD homopolyester, and PBSA copolyesters were investigated in the composting soil and NH4Cl aqueous solutions at a pH level of 10.6. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 82: 2808–2826, 2001