Turkish Higher Education Research Articles

Change Readiness among Teaching Staff at Anadolu University, Turkey

Turkey’s Anadolu University is one of the world’s largest mega‐universities. It is engaged in strategic planning in response to changes in the expectations of the Turkish Higher Education Council and the community at large. In re‐examining its vision and strategic directions, Anadolu University needs to be informed on the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of its teaching staff, and the systems and support needed to assure their change readiness. This article examines the literature of organizational and educational change and its implications for the university. It reports on a study based on the relevant constructs from the literature and is designed to gauge the extent and nature of teaching staff knowledge, skills, practice, and research in educational and technological change, motivating and de‐motivating factors, change adopter types, and perceptions of the organizational climate for change. It considers the implications of these findings and draws conclusions about what would be needed to improve staff readiness for change.

Mini skirts and headscarves: undergraduate student perceptions of secularism in Turkish higher education

This article is based on a qualitative study that examines the perceptions of advanced undergraduate students in five Turkish state universities regarding their understanding of the concept of secularism and its manifestation within the higher education sector. The study further illuminates these students’ perspectives of how the university may change in relation to their understanding of secularism. This inquiry was guided by four central questions posed to the students: (1) what is your understanding of the concept of secularism?; (2) how does secularism manifest within universities in Turkey and your institution in particular?; (3) are there aspects of your university you would like to see change as a result of secularism?; and (4) in what ways has your identity influenced your academic decisions?

Education in Islam—Myths and Truths

Next article No AccessGuest EditorialEducation in Islam—Myths and TruthsWadad KadiWadad Kadi Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Comparative Education Review Volume 50, Number 3August 2006Special Issue on Islam and Education—Myths and TruthsGuest Editors: Wadad Kadi and Victor Billeh Sponsored by the Comparative and International Education Society Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/504818 Views: 426Total views on this site Citations: 31Citations are reported from Crossref © 2006 by the Comparative and International Education Society. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Claire Alkouatli “We’re Trying to Raise Muslim Kids, Right?” Muslim Educators’ Narratives of Human Development, Cognition and Instruction 41, no.11 (May 2022): 32–60.https://doi.org/10.1080/07370008.2022.2073355Essam Ayyad Re-Evaluating Early Memorization of the Qurʾān in Medieval Muslim Cultures, Religions 13, no.22 (Feb 2022): 179.https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13020179Paul Douglas Fullerton, Mahbub Sarkar, Shamsul Haque, Wendy McKenzie Culture and understanding the role of feedback for health professions students: realist synthesis protocol, BMJ Open 12, no.22 (Feb 2022): e049462.https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049462ESSAM AYYAD How were young Muslim minds shaped? A critical study of the kuttāb in Medieval Islam, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 32, no.11 (Feb 2021): 141–185.https://doi.org/10.1017/S135618632100002XSamiul Hasan Mosques and Civil Society in the Twenty-First Century, (Jun 2022): 1–9.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99675-2_9552-1T. O. Yusuf, L. Raimi How Compatible Are SDGs with Divine Principles? A Critical Literature Review (CLR), (Apr 2021): 3–27.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65313-2_1Holger Daun Islamic Education in Four European Countries: England, The Netherlands, Russia, and Sweden, (Apr 2021): 213–233.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-31696-9_14Muhammed Haron Central and Southern Africa: Islamic Education Variations, (Jun 2020): 391–420.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38277-3_20Abdul Haiy Abdul Sali, Arlyne Canales Marasigan , International Journal of Comparative Education and Development 22, no.33 ( 2020): 201.https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCED-06-2019-0034 References, (Nov 2018): 129–136.https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78754-531-120181014Abdullah Sahin Critical Issues in Islamic Education Studies: Rethinking Islamic and Western Liberal Secular Values of Education, Religions 9, no.1111 (Oct 2018): 335.https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9110335Val D. Rust, Carine Allaf Islamic Fundamentalism, Terrorism, and Education, (Jun 2018): 389–402.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64683-1_19Holger Daun Introduction to Part III: Islamic Education Around the World: Commonalities and Varieties, (Jun 2018): 529–553.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64683-1_45Val D. Rust, Carine Allaf Islamic Fundamentalism, Terrorism, and Education, (Jul 2017): 1–14.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53620-0_19-1Holger Daun Islamic Education Around the World: Commonalities and Varieties, (Jul 2017): 1–25.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53620-0_45-1Mukhlis Abu Bakar Teaching Islam to Children in Multicultural Singapore, (Oct 2017): 2238–2241.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-588-4_542Mukhlis Abu Bakar Teaching Islam to Children in Multicultural Singapore, (Nov 2016): 1–4.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-532-7_542-1Fatma Nevra Seggie Academic and cultural experiences of covered women in Turkish higher education, Comparative Education 51, no.44 (Sep 2015): 575–591.https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2015.1081795Linda Walton Educational institutions, (Apr 2015): 116–144.https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667480.006Samiul Hasan Muslim Philanthropy: Praxis and Human Security Across Muslim Majority Countries, (Jan 2015): 117–144.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2525-4_5Hoda Baytiyeh, Mohamad K. Naja Can education reduce Middle Eastern fatalistic attitude regarding earthquake disasters?, Disaster Prevention and Management 23, no.44 (Jul 2014): 343–355.https://doi.org/10.1108/DPM-12-2013-0219A'ishah Ahmad Sabki, Glenn Hardaker The madrasah concept of Islamic pedagogy, Educational Review 65, no.33 (Aug 2013): 342–356.https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2012.668873Amir Sabzevar Qahfarokhi, Abbas Madandar Arani, Lida Kakia The Impact of Educational Systems on Political Violence in the Middle-East Region, (Jan 2013): 223–235.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-125-2_13Zaniah Marshallsay Twists and turns of Islamic education across the Islamic world, International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning 7, no.33 (Dec 2014): 180–190.https://doi.org/10.5172/ijpl.2012.7.3.180Lori Hartmann-Mahmud Pounding Millet During School Hours: Obstacles to Girls’ Formal Education in Niger, The European Journal of Development Research 23, no.33 (Mar 2011): 354–370.https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2011.6Bill Gent The world of the British hifz class student: observations, findings and implications for education and further research, British Journal of Religious Education 33, no.11 (Jan 2011): 3–15.https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2011.523516Margery K. Anderson, Tarfa Nasser Alnaimi, Shaikha Hamad Alhajri National student research fairs as evidence for progress in Qatar’s Education for a New Era, Improving Schools 13, no.33 (Dec 2010): 235–248.https://doi.org/10.1177/1365480210390083David W. Chapman, Suzanne L. Miric Education Quality in the Middle East, International Review of Education 55, no.44 (Jul 2009): 311–344.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-009-9132-5Jaddon Park, Sarfaroz Niyozov Madrasa education in South Asia and Southeast Asia: current issues and debates, Asia Pacific Journal of Education 28, no.44 (Dec 2008): 323–351.https://doi.org/10.1080/02188790802475372Ho Wai-Yip Teaching Islam to educate multiethnic and multicultural literacy: seeking alternative discourse and global pedagogies in the Chinese context, Asian Ethnicity 9, no.22 (Jun 2008): 77–95.https://doi.org/10.1080/14631360802041893Sa'eda Buang, Masturah Ismail The Life and Future of Muslim Education, Asia Pacific Journal of Education 27, no.11 (Mar 2007): 1–9.https://doi.org/10.1080/02188790601145390

Accreditation Processes in Turkish Higher Education

There has been considerable interest in national quality assurance process in Turkey following the pilot accreditation project of the Engineering College of the Middle East Technical University (METU) by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), in 2000. ABET accreditation of the Engineering Colleges of Bosphorus and Bilkent Universities followed that of METU. These universities use their accreditation by ABET to attract the best students in the country. Newly founded private universities, in particular, are trying to use the accreditation of their programmes by international accreditation agencies for marketing purposes. The Higher Educational Council [Yuksek Ogretim Kurumu (YOK)], which governs all the universities in Turkey, is currently promoting accreditation studies to improve the quality of higher education in the universities. This is a report on accreditation processes in higher education in Turkey.

Prospects for European Integration: Turkish Higher Education

The development of higher education and research constitutes a possible pathway to innovation and global competitiveness. Nation states, however, often seek the quickest adaptations, with minimum investment, ignoring essential political and structural changes. Turkey maintains its highly centralized system of higher education observing the national policies in the field. This paper addresses the international aspects of Turkish higher education, with special focus on student and academic mobility. Present day Turkish higher education system has been shaped by two dominant major events: the post‐Soviet era and the country's integration into the European Union.

The Nazis' Gifts to Turkish Higher Education and Inadvertently to Us All: Modernization of Turkish Higher Education (1933-1945) and its Impact on Present Science and Culture

The system of higher education inherited by the Republic of Turkey in 1923, consisted of a few hundred Ottoman vintage (Islamic) madrasas and three military academies, one of which was expanded into an engineering school. With secularization enshrined in its constitution, the new government recognized the need for modernization/westernization throughout Turkish society and established a number of policies for bringing this about. At government invitation and mandate to modernize higher education, starting in 1933 and running through WWII, Turkey provided safe-haven for many intellectuals and professionals fleeing Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, France, and other Nazi dominated lands. This paper discusses the impact of these emigre professors, not just on Turkey's higher education in the sciences, professions, and humanities, but also on its public health, library, legal, engineering, and administrative practices. The multi-faceted legacy of this impact on present Turkish society with all its richness is documented if but in part and some of the socio-economic reasons for Turkey's not taking full advantage of the second and third generation progenies of its modern higher educational system, and the ensuing brain drain, are analyzed. Lastly, the paper briefly addresses the impact on American science of the Turkey-saved professors, some of whom subsequently re-emigrated to the US.

Education, Islam, and Modernity: Beyond Westernization and CentralizationImperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire by Benjamin C. Fortna. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. 304 pp. $74.00 (cloth). ISBN 0‐19924‐840‐0.The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839–1908: Islamization, Autocracy, and Discipline by Selcuk Aksin Somel. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2001. 414 pp. $120.00 (cloth).

Previous articleNext article No AccessEducation, Islam, and Modernity: Beyond Westernization and Centralization Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire by Benjamin C. Fortna. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. 304 pp. $74.00 (cloth). ISBN 0‐19924‐840‐0. The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839–1908: Islamization, Autocracy, and Discipline by Selcuk Aksin Somel. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2001. 414 pp. $120.00 (cloth). ISBN 9‐00411‐903‐5. Education, Religion, and the Discourse of Cultural Reform in Qajar Iran by Monica Ringer. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda, 2001. 310 pp. $24.95 (cloth). ISBN 1‐56859‐131‐4.Linda HerreraLinda Herrera Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Comparative Education Review Volume 48, Number 3August 2004 Sponsored by the Comparative and International Education Society Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/421179 Views: 356Total views on this site Citations: 6Citations are reported from Crossref © 2004 by the Comparative and International Education Society. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Melanie Schwarz, Sri Indah Pujiastuti, Manfred Holodynski Beyond Autonomy? Moral Socialization Goals of German and Indonesian Preschool Teachers, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 51, no.66 (Jun 2020): 456–474.https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022120930102Seyithan DEMİRDAĞ, Muhammad Khalıfa MUHAMMAD KHALIFA The Effects of Westernization Efforts on the Turkish Education System, International Journal of Educational Research Review (Jul 2020): 165–177.https://doi.org/10.24331/ijere.719244Asena Caner, Cahit Guven, Cagla Okten, Seyhun Orcan Sakalli Gender Roles and the Education Gender Gap in Turkey, Social Indicators Research 129, no.33 (Nov 2015): 1231–1254.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-1163-7RADI S. MOUSTAFA ABOUELHASSAN, LOIS M. MEYER Economy, modernity, Islam, and English in Egypt, World Englishes 35, no.11 (Oct 2015): 147–159.https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12171Fatma Nevra Seggie Academic and cultural experiences of covered women in Turkish higher education, Comparative Education 51, no.44 (Sep 2015): 575–591.https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2015.1081795Fida J. Adely Is Music Haram? Jordanian Girls Educating Each Other about Nation, Faith, and Gender in School, Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education 109, no.77 (Feb 2022): 1663–1681.https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810710900711

Education, Islam, and Modernity: Beyond Westernization and Centralization

Previous articleNext article No AccessEducation, Islam, and Modernity: Beyond Westernization and Centralization Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire by Benjamin C. Fortna. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. 304 pp. $74.00 (cloth). ISBN 0‐19924‐840‐0. The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839–1908: Islamization, Autocracy, and Discipline by Selcuk Aksin Somel. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2001. 414 pp. $120.00 (cloth). ISBN 9‐00411‐903‐5. Education, Religion, and the Discourse of Cultural Reform in Qajar Iran by Monica Ringer. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda, 2001. 310 pp. $24.95 (cloth). ISBN 1‐56859‐131‐4.Linda HerreraLinda Herrera Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Comparative Education Review Volume 48, Number 3August 2004 Sponsored by the Comparative and International Education Society Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/421179 Views: 383Total views on this site Citations: 6Citations are reported from Crossref © 2004 by the Comparative and International Education Society. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Melanie Schwarz, Sri Indah Pujiastuti, Manfred Holodynski Beyond Autonomy? Moral Socialization Goals of German and Indonesian Preschool Teachers, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 51, no.66 (Jun 2020): 456–474.https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022120930102Seyithan DEMİRDAĞ, Muhammad Khalıfa MUHAMMAD KHALIFA The Effects of Westernization Efforts on the Turkish Education System, International Journal of Educational Research Review (Jul 2020): 165–177.https://doi.org/10.24331/ijere.719244Asena Caner, Cahit Guven, Cagla Okten, Seyhun Orcan Sakalli Gender Roles and the Education Gender Gap in Turkey, Social Indicators Research 129, no.33 (Nov 2015): 1231–1254.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-1163-7RADI S. MOUSTAFA ABOUELHASSAN, LOIS M. MEYER Economy, modernity, Islam, and English in Egypt, World Englishes 35, no.11 (Oct 2015): 147–159.https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12171Fatma Nevra Seggie Academic and cultural experiences of covered women in Turkish higher education, Comparative Education 51, no.44 (Sep 2015): 575–591.https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2015.1081795Fida J. Adely Is Music Haram? Jordanian Girls Educating Each Other about Nation, Faith, and Gender in School, Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education 109, no.77 (Feb 2022): 1663–1681.https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810710900711

Islam and Egyptian Higher Education: Student Attitudes

Previous articleNext article No AccessIslam and Egyptian Higher Education: Student AttitudesBradley J. CookBradley J. Cook Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Comparative Education Review Volume 45, Number 3August 2001 Sponsored by the Comparative and International Education Society Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/447677 Views: 51Total views on this site Citations: 11Citations are reported from Crossref © August 2001by the Comparative and International Education Society. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Jason Nunzio Dorio Pedagogy of Transition: Understanding University Student Movements in Post-2011 Egypt, (Sep 2017): 339–363.https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-358X20140000012016Fatma Nevra Seggie Academic and cultural experiences of covered women in Turkish higher education, Comparative Education 51, no.44 (Sep 2015): 575–591.https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2015.1081795Nagwa Megahed, Stephen Lack Women’s Rights and Gender-Educational Inequality in Egypt and Tunisia, (Jan 2013): 201–222.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-125-2_12Mehmet Ozan A?ik Contesting religious educational discourses and institutions in contemporary Egypt, Social Compass 59, no.11 (Apr 2012): 84–101.https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768611432119Nagwa Megahed, Stephen Lack Colonial legacy, women’s rights and gender-educational inequality in the Arab World with particular reference to Egypt and Tunisia, International Review of Education 57, no.3-43-4 (Aug 2011): 397–418.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-011-9215-yNagwa Megahed, Stephen Lack Colonial legacy, women’s rights and gender-educational inequality in the Arab World with particular reference to Egypt and Tunisia, (Aug 2011): 397–418.https://doi.org/10.1007/s978-94-007-4411-0_9MATTHEW J. NELSON ‘Dealing with Difference: Religious Education and the Challenge of Democracy in Pakistan’, Modern Asian Studies 43, no.33 (May 2009): 591–618.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X07003423Siri Wormnæs Cross‐cultural Collaboration in Special Teacher Education: An arena for facilitating reflection?, International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 55, no.33 (Aug 2008): 205–225.https://doi.org/10.1080/10349120802268305Mary Tyler E. Holmes Higher education reform in Egypt: preparing graduates for Egypt's changing political economy, Education, Business and Society: Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues 1, no.33 (Aug 2008): 175–185.https://doi.org/10.1108/17537980810909797Mark Ginsburg, Nagawa Megahed Multiple Perspectives on Terrorism and Islam: Challenges for Educators in Egypt and the United States before/after September 11, 2001, (Jan 2003): 199–213.https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403982391_13Wendy Kohli, Bill Griffen, Mark Ginsburg, Nagwa Megahed, Donna Adair Breault Articles, Educational Studies 33, no.33 (Sep 2002): 261–316.https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326993ES3303_02

Going against the national cultural grain: A longitudinal case study of organizational culture change in Turkish higher education

This paper presents results of a longitudinal case study inquiry into the measurement of organizational culture change through the implementation of total quality management (TQM) concepts in a higher education context. The inquiry deals with the relationship between national culture and the company corporate culture, the consequences of manager style change for TQM implementation and how culture change can be measured adequately. The results are achieved by the utilization of external (quantitative) and internal (qualitative) measurement devices. Limitations consequent upon the number of participants and the dual role of the researcher indicate the potential value of further investigations into the topic using these devices. The main conclusion is that the maintenance of TQM systems without continued senior managerial commitment may not suffice to secure change and prevent a reversion to earlier cultural patterns. Certainly, since the findings of this inquiry are limited to one case study, it would be unwise to assume that similar results would necessarily pertain in other higher education contexts. Nevertheless, we are of the view that the findings are suggestive of the pressures imposed on organizational change by national cultural patterns. The devices implemented for measuring organizational cultural change, while not designed for that purpose, have, however, yielded sufficiently well-defined results to suggest the value of similar implementations to gain insight into the topic in further higher education and other organizational contexts.

Equity, quality and efficiency effects of reform in Turkish higher education

Equity, quality and efficiency effects of reform in Turkish higher education

Equity, quality and efficiency effects of reform in Turkish higher education

This paper summarizes the major findings of recent studies dealing with the equity, quality, and internal efficiency effects of higher education reform in Turkey. It uses these findings to examine whether public policies formulated by the central government in 1982, in fact made progress on their intended purposes. Such information should assist policy makers in Turkey to better understand tradeoffs in terms of costs and outcomes between equity policies and points of quality and internal efficiency.

Diffusion of distance education in Turkish higher education

In this paper, Rogers's diffusion theory was used to analyze the acceptance and implementation of the innovation of distance education in higher education in Turkey. Distance education was not successfully adopted between 1970 and 1980 in Turkey because of organizational problems. Distance education was effectively and efficiently diffused in Turkey after 1982. Thousands of students today earn university diplomas studying at a distance. On the other hand, problems of organization, technology, and perceptions remain to be addressed. It is to be hoped that in the future the OEF will be independent or have more autonomy. This will help it deliver instruction to its students.

Intermediary Bodies and Universities: Autonomy in Turkey

This paper describes conditions in Turkey's higher education system prior to the 1981 Reform Law, and discusses developments that have taken place between 1982–1995. The Higher Education Council was established as the supreme intermediary body vested with powers and responsibilities for the nationwide governance of higher education. The Council is fully autonomous and, in its structures and powers, resembles a state board of trustees for a multi-campus system. Since 1981, the Turkish higher education system has been transformed from a degenerated version of the old model to a system with many affinities to the Anglo-American model. Furthermore, the number of universities has doubled, closer cooperation and coordination among institutions has been established, and the number of faculty members and students has increased considerably. In addition, several projects have been implemented to raise the quality of higher education and to encourage scientific research and publications.

Student selection and placement in Turkish higher education

Abstract Economic development, urbanisation and a rapidly increasing population have posed considerable problems for the higher education system of the Republic of Turkey. In particular there has been a great increase in demand for places in Turkish universities. This paper outlines the national one-stage test system which operated between 1974 and 1981 and describes in more detail the two-stage test system which has operated since 1981 by OSYM, the Student Selection and Placement Centre. The system governs selection and placement for the great majority of higher education programmes throughout Turkey. The paper ends with a discussion of the limitations of the system and suggests reasons why it appears to have gained for itself a reputation for efficiency and fairness.

The economics of higher education and tests of equity criteria in Turkey

Unequal opportunities are a fact of life in most societies. Imbalances exist in each society under all conceivable economic environments. To alleviate these imbalances, most governments tend to interfere in the market. In this respect Turkey is no exception. Thus, the government established the Turkish Higher Education Council in 1982 with the hope of improving educational resource allocation. This paper investigates the private costs of public higher education in Turkey. It also tests whether a structural cost difference exists between the universities in the three biggest cities of Turkey and the rest of the country's fifteen Universities. Does the highly subsidized Turkish Higher Education ensure equity of resource allocation? The findings show that, among the factors contributing to higher education, the number of faculty members has the lowest price elasticity of demand. In the case of assessing whether there are structural cost differences between the universities in developed and underdeveloped regions the findings show that imbalances between the two regions still exist.