Turkey Husbandry Research Articles

The introduction of the turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) in early modern Sweden – historical and zooarchaeological evidence of husbandry and consumption

SUMMARY In this paper we describe how and why turkeys were introduced to Sweden during the 16th century, and how the bird spread to different social groups in the 17th century. We present data from unpublished financial records and provide a compilation of all archaeological findings of turkeys from the geographical area of present-day Sweden. The results show that turkeys, first imported by Duke Karl of Sweden in the 1580s, had spread to the Swedish nobility by the 1610s. During the first decades of turkey husbandry in Sweden, turkeys were items of conspicuous consumption, used to show off during elite dinners and as gifts to peers and subsequently also to subordinates. During the 17th century, the bird was adopted by the urban upper middle class. Early modern Swedish turkeys were small, and likely less affected by selective breeding when compared to modern heritage-breed turkeys.

An application of zooms to identify archaeological avian fauna from Teotihuacan, Mexico

The remains of aquatic birds often represent the best surviving evidence for prehispanic lake exploitation in highland Central Mexico, an important center of urban development with vast lacustrine resources. Yet unlike the sustained focus on turkey husbandry in Mesoamerican research, the economic importance of ducks and other lacustrine birds has received little attention. The diversity of birds in Central Mexico presents challenges to species identification from skeletal remains. To overcome these challenges, we present a new application of ZooMS, a collagen-based identification technique, to identify archaeological avian fauna from Teotihuacan. We develop the first database of avian biomarkers to include specimens across multiple taxonomic groups and apply ZooMS on 295 bone fragments to identify fragmentary and unidentified avian remains from the Tlajinga district of Teotihuacan. Our results indicate that ZooMS has good potential to identify avian fauna to below family level and that the residents of Tlajinga exploited a range of aquatic birds.

Keypoint Detection for Injury Identification during Turkey Husbandry Using Neural Networks

Injurious pecking against conspecifics is a serious problem in turkey husbandry. Bloody injuries act as a trigger mechanism to induce further pecking, and timely detection and intervention can prevent massive animal welfare impairments and costly losses. Thus, the overarching aim is to develop a camera-based system to monitor the flock and detect injuries using neural networks. In a preliminary study, images of turkeys were annotated by labelling potential injuries. These were used to train a network for injury detection. Here, we applied a keypoint detection model to provide more information on animal position and indicate injury location. Therefore, seven turkey keypoints were defined, and 244 images (showing 7660 birds) were manually annotated. Two state-of-the-art approaches for pose estimation were adjusted, and their results were compared. Subsequently, a better keypoint detection model (HRNet-W48) was combined with the segmentation model for injury detection. For example, individual injuries were classified using “near tail” or “near head” labels. Summarizing, the keypoint detection showed good results and could clearly differentiate between individual animals even in crowded situations.

Studies regarding the occurrence of feather pecking and cannibalism in flocks of non-beaktrimmed male turkeys (B.U.T. 6) kept under different stocking densities in an enriched curtain-sided barn

Abstract The occurrence of feather pecking and cannibalism is a challenge in turkey husbandry in regard to animal welfare, especially as the triggers of these behavioural disorders have not been finally clarified. Genetics, lightning, feeding, flock size, stocking density and poor environmental complexity are discussed as the main reasons. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of a reduced stocking density on the occurrence of feather pecking and cannibalism in turkeys. In addition, it was examined whether an environmental enrichment with structural elements and manipulable materials in combination with intensive animal care allows the keeping of non-beaktrimmed male turkeys in a curtain-sided barn. Therefore, two consecutive trials with two flocks of non-beaktrimmed toms (British United Turkeys 6) were conducted. Animals were kept with defined stocking densities of 40 kg/m² as low stocking density (LD) and 58 kg/m² as high stocking density (HD). The separation of injured turkeys, total losses and numbers of dead and culled animals, with special emphasis on injuries caused by cannibalism, were recorded separately for both flocks. Within this study reducing the stocking density did not result in a decrease of injurious pecking. Separation rates of up to a maximum of 15.81% were documented. Whereas in the first trial significantly more turkeys of the HD flock had to be separated due to injuries (HD 9.30%; LD 5.56%; p < 0.001), contrasting results could be found for the second trial (HD 4.93%; LD 7.67%; p = 0.0035). In both trials the cumulative mortality did not significantly differ between the different stocking densities and was less than 10%. In conclusion, stocking density did not affect the number of animals injured due to cannibalism. Furthermore, the study suggests, that structural environmental enrichment in combination with an intensive animal care may be key elements in keeping non-beaktrimmed toms in a curtain-sided barn.

Turkeys Befriend a Girl: Turkey Husbandry, Ceremonialism, and Tales of Resistance during the Pueblo Revolt Era – Addendum

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Turkeys Befriend a Girl: Turkey Husbandry, Ceremonialism, and Tales of Resistance during the Pueblo Revolt Era

From Basketmaker II to Pueblo II (200 BC–AD 1150), turkey husbandry flourished among Ancestral Pueblos inhabiting the northern and southern San Juan areas (300 BC–AD 1250) and the Rio Grande Valley (AD 1250– 1700) due to the ritual-symbolic importance of turkey feathers to rainmaking ideology. As primary caregivers, Ancestral Puebloan women's long-lasting social bond with domesticated turkeys was disrupted by Spanish maize and textile tribute (encomienda) systems and demands on Native labor (repartimiento) of the mid-1600s, a major factor contributing to the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. Despite the Spanish assault on their culture, Native people clandestinely practiced kachina religion by reusing turkey feather ceremonial objects, seeking refuge in ancestral mesa-top villages, and repurposing Spanish ecclesiastical materials as part of a pan-Pueblo resistance and revitalization movement. This study examines a previously overlooked form of Native resistance to Franciscan conversion efforts—“turkey girl” tales that appropriated and repurposed a Spanish religious folktale. Evidence suggests that these tales were authored by Pueblo Revolt–era war captains who attended Franciscan mission schools around the 1630s. To varying degrees, these “turkey girl” tales express nativist resistance to Franciscan conversion efforts, commitment to revitalization ideology, and pan-Pueblo ethnogenesis.

Testing for Mississippian Period Turkey Management in the Archaeological Record of the Southeastern United States

People living in Mesoamerica and what is now the eastern and southwestern United States used turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) as sources of meat, eggs, bones, and feathers. Turkey husbandry and domestication are confirmed in two of these regions (Mesoamerica and the American Southwest), but human-turkey interactions in Eastern North American (eastern United States and Canada) are not fully explored. We apply stable isotope (δ13C, δ15N) and ancient mitochondrial DNA analyses to archaeofaunal samples from seven sites in the southeastern United States to test whether turkeys were managed or captively reared. These combined data do not support prolonged or intensive captive rearing of turkeys, and evidence for less intensive management is ambiguous. More research is warranted to determine whether people managed turkeys in these areas, and whether this is generalizable. Determining whether turkeys were managed or reared in the southeastern United States helps define cultural and environmental factors related to turkey management or husbandry throughout North America. This inquiry contributes to discussion of the roles of intensified human-animal interactions in animal domestication.

Staying warm in the upland southwest: A “supply side” view of turkey feather blanket production

By the very early C.E. in the U.S. Upland Southwest, blankets or robes relying on turkey feathers as the insulating medium began to replace those made with strips of rabbit fur. Feather blankets would have been important possessions of most members of Ancestral Pueblo communities. Analysis of a 99 X 108 cm feather blanket dating approximately to the 1200s C.E. indicates it required over 180 m of yucca fiber cordage and an estimated 11,550 body feathers. Counts of suitable body feathers from two adult male wild turkey pelts indicated that the prehistoric blanket would have required feathers from 4 to 10 turkeys, depending on the range of feather lengths selected. Blanket feathers were probably most frequently collected from live birds, although natural molts or recently killed birds may have contributed. Further research on the manufacture and use of feather blankets is warranted in the context of their important roles in Ancestral Pueblo material culture and turkey husbandry.

Research Note: Injurious pecking in fattening turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo f. dom.)—video analyses of triggering factors and behavioral sequences in small flocks of male turkeys

Injurious pecking is one of the main welfare issues in fattening turkey husbandry. Birds pecked by conspecifics can suffer from serious injuries that may even lead to the death of the victimized animals or require their culling. In the present study, the behavior of male turkeys was documented day and night using video recordings throughout the entire fattening period of 19 wk. Thus, when a turkey was found injured or dead in the barn, a retrospective analysis of video recordings was carried out to clarify the circumstances surrounding the death or injuries of the bird in the present study. In 3 fattening trials with a total of 1,620 male turkeys with intact beaks, 41 birds (2.5%) were found either seriously injured (n = 24) or dead (n = 17) in the barn as a result from conspecific pecking. The detailed evaluation of the video recordings showed that the onset of injurious pecking was mainly in the afternoon after the last daily visual controls of animals and that one third of the dead found animals died a natural death without any pecking incidents. The duration of injurious pecking directed against a certain conspecific was on average 794 min, ranging from 84 min to 1,437 min, that is up to almost an entire day. Pecking activities lasting more than 10 h were interrupted from the light regime between dusk and dawn but continued with the onset of light in the morning. Duration of injurious pecking events decreased with age (P = 0.031). If the victims laid down or were impaired in their mobility, they would be surrounded by up to 10 turkeys that would still be forcefully pecking at the occipital and neck area of the badly injured or moribund birds.

Forced locomotor activity improves walking ability of male turkeys and modifies carcass characteristics

ABSTRACT1. This trial investigated the effect of forced locomotor activity (training) on walking ability, leg posture, and growth performance, as well as carcass composition and meat quality in male fattening turkeys.2. A flock of 744 commercial turkeys was divided into three experimental groups, either without any training period (control), training from weeks 2 to 8 (short-term), or training from weeks 2 to 21 (long-term). All birds were slaughtered at an age of 21 weeks. To study the effect of short vs. long time lapse between shackling and stunning (suspension time), each training group was split into two halves that were hooked on the shackle for either 15 s or 3 min prior to stunning.3. Long-term physical training, compared to short-term or no training, resulted in better walking ability and in a lower percentage of leg malposition, as assessed at the end of fattening. No effect on final body weight was detected.4. In a subsample, the composition of 80 carcasses was determined by dissection. Long-term training favoured the percentage of the drumstick over that of the breast cut in comparison to the group without any training.5. Meat quality parameters were determined for breast muscle. The pH values 20 min post-mortem were reduced by long-term training, and the highest value was observed for a combination of no training with short suspension. After 24 h, pH values did not differ between experimental groups. The breast muscles were characterised as fast-glycolysing. Prolonged suspension time resulted in higher electrical conductivity after 24 h, and in higher a* values (redness).6. In conclusion, the study revealed that a long-term training period improved walking ability and leg posture of heavy male turkeys. Thus, training can contribute to the improvement of animal welfare in turkey husbandry. Meat quality variables of breast muscles were partially influenced by locomotor activity and suspension time.

Foot Pad Health as Part of On-Farm-Monitoring in Turkey Flocks.

Currently, there is no consistent approach to on-farm and post-mortem foot pad (FP) assessment in turkey husbandry in sampling of both feet, sample sizes of birds and scoring schemes during the production period. Therefore, in a field study, 11,400 turkeys, i.e., 22,800 feet, were macroscopically scored at 4-week intervals, 60 birds per flock per date, in accordance with the scale system of Hocking et al. (1). Spearman's rho was calculated between the foot pad dermatitis (FPD) score of both feet of an individual turkey. Sample size for FPD monitoring was calculated for several flock sizes, considering expected FPD prevalence and the error and confidence level (α = 0.01, 0.05, 0.1). To compare macroscopic to histological findings, ten excised FPs were histopathologically investigated by hematoxylin & eosin staining. To align manual macroscopic FPD evaluations with a technical system, 20 photographic images of FPD were measured using the ImageJ program. The scores of both feet of an individual turkey correlated between r = 0.252 and r = 1.000. Thus, both feet of a bird should be monitored, while the worse foot should be evaluated. As an exemplary sample size for on-farm FPD assessment, 77 turkey poults were calculated in a flock of 4,000 birds with an expected FPD prevalence of 40% and α = 0.1. The sample size of monitored birds within a flock should differ and depend on flock size and expected FPD prevalence. Histopathological findings showed normal and non-affected structures of a macroscopic Score 0 and a moderate ulcer of the macroscopic Score 1 and Score 2. The applied assessment scheme should distinguish first alterations and scar tissue as separate scores to differentiate the need for management intervention vs. the success of management measures that were already implemented. FPD affected areas were given lower Scores and assessed to be healthier when evaluated by an image system, compared to a manual assessment. Furthermore, with regard to an increase in camera-based assessments, the boundary of the metatarsal pad needs to be clarified. In conclusion, a new scoring system is required, as the size of the FP cannot be clearly defined and different tissue textures, as well as valid sample sizes are not currently sufficiently considered.

Diversity of management strategies in Mesoamerican turkeys: archaeological, isotopic and genetic evidence.

The turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) represents one of the few domestic animals of the New World. While current research points to distinct domestication centres in the Southwest USA and Mesoamerica, several questions regarding the number of progenitor populations, and the timing and intensity of turkey husbandry remain unanswered. This study applied ancient mitochondrial DNA and stable isotope (δ13C, δ15N) analysis to 55 archaeological turkey remains from Mexico to investigate pre-contact turkey exploitation in Mesoamerica. Three different (sub)species of turkeys were identified in the archaeological record (M. g. mexicana, M. g. gallopavo and M. ocellata), indicating the exploitation of diverse local populations, as well as the trade of captively reared birds into the Maya area. No evidence of shared maternal haplotypes was observed between Mesoamerica and the Southwest USA, in contrast with archaeological evidence for trade of other domestic products. Isotopic analysis indicates a range of feeding behaviours in ancient Mesoamerican turkeys, including wild foraging, human provisioning and mixed feeding ecologies. This variability in turkey diet decreases through time, with archaeological, genetic and isotopic evidence all pointing to the intensification of domestic turkey management and husbandry, culminating in the Postclassic period.

Archaeological correlates of population management of the eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) with a case study from the American South

The wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) was an important food resource to Precolumbian Native Americans; however, little attention has been given to the subject of turkey husbandry, or use in the American Southeast. We thus present demographic turkey data from the Mississippian Period Fewkes site in Tennessee, ethnographic and ethnohistoric information on Southeastern Native Americans, and material culture data from Tennessee and Alabama to explore the use and potential management of eastern wild turkeys (M. gallopavo silvestris). The osteometric data from the Fewkes site indicates that both male and female adult turkeys are represented in the faunal assemblage, with males being present in equal or greater numbers than females. It appears that the female specimens were not taken during the egg-laying period. The results can be interpreted as either the result of humans managing local turkey populations as sources of both meat and feathers, or occasional selective hunting of large adult males.

Turkey husbandry and use in Oaxaca, Mexico: A contextual study of turkey remains and SEM analysis of eggshell from the Mitla Fortress

Recent excavations of two domestic residences at the Mitla Fortress, dating to the Classic to Early Postclassic period (ca. CE 300–1200), have uncovered the remains of juvenile and adult turkeys (both hens and toms), several whole eggs, and numerous eggshell fragments in domestic refuse and ritual offering contexts. Holistically, this is the clearest and most comprehensive evidence to date for turkey domestication in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico. Juvenile turkeys range in age, from recently hatched poults to young juvenile birds. Medullary bone, which only forms in female birds before and during the egg-laying cycle, indicates the presence of at least one egg-laying hen. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the eggshell reveals both unhatched and hatched eggs from a range of incubation stages, from unfertilized or newly fertilized eggs to eggs nearing the termination of embryogenesis to hatched poults. We present these new data and explore turkey husbandry, consumption, and use by two residential households at the Mitla Fortress.

Bone isotopes, eggshell and turkey husbandry at Arroyo Hondo Pueblo

Studies of archaeofaunal turkey and eggshell remains have identified a clear and consistent pattern of turkey husbandry across the prehistoric Southwest. Domestic turkeys appear to have been penned, fed maize, and kept genetically isolated from wild turkey populations. In this study we use carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope values, scanning electron microscopy of eggshells, and quantitative analysis of turkey remains from Arroyo Hondo Pueblo (LA 12) to explore how turkey husbandry at this Pueblo IV site fits into the overall regional pattern. We find that although turkeys seem to have played a minor role in the overall faunal subsistence at Arroyo Hondo, they were nevertheless carefully husbanded, even during periods of climatic stress and human demographic fluctuation.

Turkeys and their Koos: A comparison of what we know about modern and prehispanic techniques of turkey husbandry in the Northern Maya Lowlands

Domesticated turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) have formed a part of regional subsistence systems in the Northern Maya Lowlands of Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula since their apparent introduction in late pre-Columbian times. Although domestic turkey rearing in the Northern Maya Lowlands seems to slightly predate Colonialism, the use and distribution of domestic turkeys may have been relatively limited prior to historic/modern times. This paper thus explores differences between prehispanic and historic/modern turkey husbandry in the Northern Maya Lowlands based on zooarchaeological data and modern ethnographic interviews and observations conducted in and around the city of Merida, Yucatan, México. The modern ethnographic data are diachronically compared with zooarchaeological information from the Northern Maya Lowlands in order explore cultural change and continuity regarding the extent of rearing, and the types of turkey husbandry techniques employed in Maya households. Based on the comparison, we highlight the importance of the Koos-technique in the Maya area for successful turkey breeding, which may explain why domestic turkeys seem to have had a relatively limited distribution among the pre-Colonial Maya.

Turkeys on the fringe: Variable husbandry in “marginal” areas of the prehistoric American Southwest

Previous research reporting stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope values of prehistoric turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) remains from the American Southwest indicates that these birds were husbanded in consistent ways: the majority of samples suggest a diet dominated by maize, a domesticate that uses the C4 photosynthetic pathway. However, most of these studies have focused on turkey remains from locations where maize would likely have been readily available. Here we present isotope and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotype data from turkey remains from the relatively high-elevation site of Tijeras Pueblo (LA 581), a location where maize production may have been marginal. The Tijeras Pueblo turkeys display a unique carbon isotope pattern in both bone collagen and bone apatite, with half the samples indicating a predominately C3 diet (a signature characteristic of modern wild turkeys) and the other half predominately C4, even though the majority of samples belong to the Southwestern domestic turkey mtDNA lineage identified by Speller et al. (2010). Comparative collagen samples from the Albuquerque Basin and the Gallina region do not follow this pattern. Apatite-collagen δ13C spacing in the Tijeras turkeys suggests these birds were acquiring carbohydrates and protein from a mixture of C3- and C4-based resources. We propose that the C3 Tijeras turkeys were free-ranged, and that the presence of two distinct turkey husbandry regimes at Tijeras Pueblo may reflect Tijeras' geographic location on a cultural boundary between the Plains and Pueblo regions.

Reconstructing animal husbandry: Trauma in Meleagris gallopavo (domestic turkey) ulnae from the American Southwest (c. 900–1678 CE)

Palaeopathological and metrical analyses of faunal remains have the potential to illuminate features of past husbandry practices including demography, stocking, injury and care, housing, transport and movement, diet, and breeding. This paper presents the results of metrical and palaeopathological analyses of turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) remains from nine assemblages excavated from sites across the American Southwest.Metrical data demonstrate variation in the size and overall morphology of turkeys across these sites and support the idea that meat production was not the sole purpose for turkey husbandry. The most frequently-occurring type of lesion in any skeletal element was trauma (physical injury), and 36% of these pathologies were present in ulnae. Lesions in ulnae at five sites provide evidence for the possibility that feathers were harvested from live turkeys at some sites.

Ancient Maya turkey husbandry: Testing theories through stable isotope analysis

Large gaps exist in our knowledge of ancient Maya turkey husbandry and management. Among the questions still needing to be addressed are: 1) when and where was the non-local Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) introduced to and adopted by the ancient Maya, and 2) did the ancient Maya also rear captive or tame populations of the indigenous Ocellated Turkey (Meleagris ocellata)? In this paper, we assess the potential of stable isotope analysis to address these questions. We employ stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope analysis to determine whether wild and husbanded turkeys in the Maya region can be distinguished based on their diets. Strontium isotope analysis (87Sr/86Sr) is also used to distinguish between M. gallopavo individuals that were imported from central/northern Mexico, and those raised on-site in the Maya lowlands. The results indicate that stable isotope analysis is a promising and underutilized method for testing theories regarding ancient Maya turkey husbandry.

The husbandry, perception and ‘improvement’ of turkeys in Britain, 1500–1900

The introduction of the turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) to Britain is documented during the first half of the 16th century. These birds initially featured on the tables of the powerful and served as living garden ornaments or pets. Shifting human perceptions, driven in part by the ‘ethic of improvement’, affected turkey husbandry methods and animal-human relationships as well as the bird’s symbolic role. This transition was complicated; the turkey remained a palimpsest of attributes throughout 1500–1900, with different associations assuming prominence over time.