Truman Doctrine Research Articles

Evaluating the Impact of Culture and Identity on Sino-Turkish Cooperation in the Belt and Road Framework

This study examines the material and intellectual factors that make inter-state cooperation possible from a constructivist perspective and aims to assess the impact of identity and culture on Turkey's planned partnership with China under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The BRI, which envisions the creation of a new China-centered economic-political structure and value system in the long run, seems to be a manifestation of China's desire to transform the existing order of international relations. The article examines from a constructionist perspective the question marks raised by Turkey's participation in this large-scale project, where Westernized intellectuals are the main constitutive element, and where Turkey has been included in the economic, political and military architecture of the West since the Second World War with the Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan and NATO membership.

The Opinio Juris and Opinio Moris in the Anglo-American Interventions During the Greek Civil War: An Archival Study of Legal Narratives

Abstract This article investigates the British and American interventions in Greece during the Greek Civil War, examining their legal and moral justifications. Using archival documents, the study uncovers two primary layers of discourse: the official diplomatic language of opinio juris (conviction of legality) and opinio moris (conviction of morality), alongside the covert political interests that drove these interventions. The research argues that British and American actions were primarily motivated by a ‘conviction of interest,’ with legal and moral narratives used tactically to justify their interventions. The archival materials reveal a notable lack of empathy and understanding from British and American officials regarding the trauma endured by the Greek populace due to the German occupation and collaborationist violence. Additionally, there was a significant neglect of the will of the Greek people. The study critically examines the Caserta and Civil Affairs Agreements, which provided a legal basis for British intervention, arguing that these agreements, when viewed in light of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, fail to justify the extent of foreign interference, thus questioning the authenticity of Greek consent. The article also explores the transition from British to American dominance in Greek affairs. As Britain faced economic constraints after the end of WWII, it ceded its role to the U.S., leading to the formulation of the Truman Doctrine and the implementation of the Marshall Plan. The U.S. intervention is analyzed through legal and geopolitical lenses, revealing a strategic focus on preventing communist expansion rather than providing purely legal or moral support for Greece’s recovery. Similar to British actions, American involvement often overlooked the political situation and the will of the Greek people, thereby contributing to prolonged instability.

Cold War Dynamics: The Strategic Interplay of Turkish-American Relations

Purpose: This article investigates the primary determinants of Turkish-American relations during the Cold War, focusing on key events and policies that influenced bilateral interactions. It aims to understand the impact of the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan, NATO alliances, the Cyprus issue, and the Kurdish conflict on these relations. The study also critically assesses the role of ethnic lobbies, such as the Armenian and Greek communities, in shaping U.S. foreign policy towards Turkey. Method: Utilizing a comprehensive historical analysis, this research draws on different sources including speeches, and official correspondences, as well as secondary sources such as academic books, journal articles, and theses. This methodological approach allows for an in-depth exploration of the complex interplay between domestic politics and international diplomacy. Conclusion: The study reveals that Turkish-American relations during the Cold War were shaped by a combination of strategic alliances, regional conflicts, and domestic political influences. Key policies like the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan were instrumental in solidifying Turkey as a critical ally, while events such as the Cyprus issue and the Kurdish conflict presented significant challenges. The influence of ethnic lobbies also played a crucial role in shaping bilateral relations. Implication of the Research: The insights gained from this analysis provide valuable lessons for future diplomatic efforts, emphasizing the need for cooperation, diversification of partnerships, and strategic alignment. Understanding the historical context of Turkish-American relations can inform current and future diplomacy, helping to navigate the complexities of this bilateral relationship. Originality of the Research: This research offers a unique and comprehensive examination of Turkish-American relations during the Cold War, incorporating a critical assessment of both strategic policies and the influence of ethnic lobbies. By providing a nuanced understanding of these factors, the study contributes original insights to the field of international relations and foreign policy analysis.

Globalizing dissent: the Soviet response to the Truman doctrine at the United Nations and the (Re)making of global governance at the end of ideology

ABSTRACT This article considers the role of dissent in the making and remaking of contemporary international relations. The immediate aftermath of World War II was a period of interregnum. Prior security paradigms were exhausted while the three major political ideologies of conservatism, liberalism, and left radicalism competed around the world. The creation of the United Nations in 1945 was meant to facilitate the creation of a new global governance model for the sake of peace. However, when in 1947 U.S. President Harry S. Truman made a speech to Congress in which he inaugurated a unilateral foreign policy doctrine premised on Soviet containment, he escalated ideological differences into security concerns. The Soviet Union responded by intensifying their investment in the U.N. and by developing a rhetorical playbook meant to aid smaller nations and oppressed peoples in challenging Western racism and colonialism. I examine the Soviets’ dissent at the United Nations to highlight (1) how dissent figures differently across political ideological paradigms; (2) the connection between dissent and institutional forums in the development of global security models; and (3) the role of dissent as a form of material rhetoric that makes possible the creation of novel political alliances.

Jazz as Soft Power in Turkey–US Relations During the Early Cold War Period

ABSTRACT The 1950s was an era when Turkish-US relations were developing in various arenas. In addition to hard power instruments, such as NATO membership, the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid, elements of soft power were also being used to promote the relationship between the two states. One element of this latter power was jazz which became tool of US public diplomacy used to export its cultural values. This paper explores how jazz was used as such in Turkey–US relations in the 1950s. The original aspect of this article lies in its dealing with the influence of jazz music, a relatively little mentioned soft power element in Turkey–US relations of this period. The main finding of the article may be conceptualized as follows: Turkey’s relationship with the US was based not only on economic and military interests, but also cultural ties between the two which were also crucial to strengthening their bilateral relations. In this context, musicians were key agents of cultural diplomacy with their music and songs legitimizing a new and different 20th century.

İKİNCİ DÜNYA SAVAŞI SONRASI KALKINMA DÖNEMİNDE TÜRKİYE'NIN ÇEKOSLOVAKYA İLE TİCARİ İLİŞKİLERİ (1945-1950)

Economy is as important as politics in the efforts of states to exist in the international public opinion. Thus, the country's domestic and foreign trade network develops, and development moves accelerate in many ways. The Republic of Turkey, which was established after a long-term war of independence, gave importance to the economy as well as politics in foreign policy and was included in the world trade system. Especially with the establishment of the central bank following the 1929 crisis, it established stronger commercial ties with other countries. In order to recover from the devastating effects of the Second World War, Turkey spent more energy to strengthen these ties. There are positive reflections of Truman doctrine and Marshall aids in this. Czechoslovakia is one of the countries with which Turkey developed commercial relations between 1945 and 1950. With the development of good relations from the Ottoman Empire in the republic period, the signing of a friendship agreement and the contribution of cultural interaction, Turkey made mutual trade with Czechoslovakia in this period. Turkey's commercial relations with Czechoslovakia between 1945-1950 constitute the limitation of this study. In this study, in which quantitative and qualitative research methods were applied; Turkish state archives, statistics institution data, press archives and copyrighted works have been the source. While Turkey mostly exports cereals, raw minerals and sea creatures to Czechoslovakia, it imported heavy industry, processed textile products and agricultural machinery from this country.

Truman Redux? Biden’s National Security Strategy

US President Joe Biden’s foreign policy, as expressed in the 2022 National Security Strategy, represents a contemporary variation of the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan and the post-Second World War programme of US global leadership. It frames great-power politics in the international arena and democratic revitalisation at home as part of a broad ideological confrontation between liberal-democratic capitalism and illiberal, authoritarian nationalism. It directs an economic-recovery plan inward to rebuild the US economy after the distortions it has been experiencing since 2008. And it promotes US leadership of the liberal-international order, albeit in a different geopolitical environment than prevailed in the post-war years. This strategy has been refined in the face of near disaster and revived by the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.

The Greek Military Dictatorship: Revisiting a Troubled Past, 1967–1974 by Othon Anastasakis and Katerina Lagos, eds.

<i>The Greek Military Dictatorship: Revisiting a Troubled Past, 1967–1974</i> by Othon Anastasakis and Katerina Lagos, eds.

Israel's Moment: International Support for and Opposition to Establishing the Jewish State, 1945–1949 by Jeffrey Herf

<i>Israel's Moment: International Support for and Opposition to Establishing the Jewish State, 1945–1949</i> by Jeffrey Herf

The Establishment of the Modern Turkish Defense Industry on the Axis of Turkish Foreign Policy from the Truman Doctrine to SaGeB

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, Kurtuluş Savaşı’ndan itibaren kendisine hedef olarak koyduğu ulusal savunma sanayii kurma idealinden, 1919-1947 yılları arasında yapılan yatırımların farklı nedenlerle büyük ölçüde başarısız olması nedeniyle vazgeçmiştir. SSCB tehdidinin ortaya çıkışı ise Türkiye’yi savaş sonrasında önce ABD ile müttefik olmaya itmiş, 1952 yılında Türkiye NATO’nun koruma şemsiyesi altına girmiştir. Bu dönemde özellikle ABD’den yapılan şarta bağlı silah yardımları Türkiye’nin bir güvenlik yanılsaması yaşamasına neden olmuştur. 1964 yılında Kıbrıs’a müdahale kararı sonrası ABD Başkanı Johnson tarafından gönderilen mektupla birlikte Türkiye, içinde bulunduğu yanılsamanın farkına varmıştır. Kıbrıs’a müdahale için ABD menşeli silahların kullanımının ABD tarafından hoş görülmeyeceğinin Türkiye’ye bildirilmesi Kıbrıs müdahalesini on yıl geciktirmiştir. Türkiye bu dönemde ulusal çıkarları gerçekleştirmek için dış kaynaktan elde edilen silahlara güvenilemeyeceğini anlamış ve kuruluş hedeflerini tekrar benimseyerek günümüze değin gelişimini devam ettiren ulusal savunma sanayii kurma stratejisine geri dönmüştür.

Proclamation of Truman Doctrine and Its Effects in Turkey

II. Dünya Savaşı’nın sonlarına doğru SSCB, yayılmacı bir politika izleyeceğinin ilk sinyallerini vermiştir. Bunu, Türkiye ile 1921’de tespit edilen sınırda kendi lehine değişiklikler yapılması talebi ve Boğazlar konusunu gündeme getirerek ortaya koymuştur. II. Dünya Savaşı sona erdiğinde Avrupa’da güç dengesi değişmiştir. Güç merkezi olarak geriye iki büyük devlet, yani SSCB ile ABD kalmıştır. Bu durumu fırsata çevirmek isteyen SSCB, yayılmacı politikalarına hız vermiştir. Belirtilen tehdide en fazla maruz kalan ülkeler, Yunanistan ve Türkiye olmuştur. SSCB’nin yayılmacı politikaları, ABD’yi rahatsız etmiştir. Çünkü bu durum, ABD ile Avrupa’nın çıkarlarına aykırı düşmüştür. Buna engel olmak için Başkan Truman, 12 Mart 1947’de Kongre’ye hitaben bir konuşma yapmıştır. Tarihe, “Truman Doktrini” diye geçen konuşmada, Yunanistan ile Türkiye’ye 400 milyon dolarlık bir askerî yardım yapılması için Kongre’den yetki istemiş ve bu talep kabul edilmiştir. Bu çalışmada; Truman Doktrini’nin ilanını gerekli kılan şartlar, doktrinin ilanı ve Türk kamuoyundaki yansımaları irdelenerek konunun daha sağlıklı anlaşılmasına bir nebze katkı sağlamak amaçlanmıştır.

The Effect of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan on the Military Aid Started by the USA After World War II

The Effect of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan on the Military Aid Started by the USA After World War II

The discipline that came in from the cold: American human geography becomes a Cold War social science

The high–Cold War period – from the Truman doctrine to the Cuban missile crisis – brought not only profound changes in geography but also profound changes to Geography. The discipline moved from a museum-like, fusty subject to aspiring to be a Cold War, cutting-edge hybrid social science (or behavioural science) ‘cross-bred’ with physical and applied sciences. The vehicle was social physics. Its origins were in the 17th century, but the actual name was not coined until 1835 and then in French, ‘Physique Sociale’, by the Belgian astronomer, statistician and social tabulator, Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874). As a project, social physics rested on the belief of monism in which the same formal explanatory scientific principles held in both natural and social worlds. In the particular case of Cold War geography, monism meant asserting that specifically Newtonian equations describing the movements of celestial bodies in the heavens could explain equally as well movements of human bodies down on earth. In American human geography, social physics was pioneered from the early 1950s by William Warntz, who collaborated early on with the Princeton astrophysicist, John Stewart, who, in turn, had previously worked with the Harvard linguist, George Zipf. Together Warntz and Stewart using home-made early computing devices and drawing on Newtonian formulations of potential cast geography as social physics, extolling its virtues as ‘macrogeography’ and on par with other disciplines that already had entered the Pantheon of Cold War social science.

Religion and the Cold War Politics: The Election of Athenagoras as Patriarch

A critical development during the years of World War II was the change of the USSR’s policy towards the Church and its attempt to make use of the influence of the Moscow Patriarchate on the Orthodox world. This move of the USSR mobilized the United States, which assumed that the Soviet influence in the Balkan countries and the Middle East would be prevented by strengthening the Patriarchate of İstanbul. The US proposed Athenagoras, the Archbishop of North and South America, for the leadership of Phanar; a figure who was expected to be effective in the struggle with Moscow. This proposal was accepted by Turkey and Greece. However, Athenagoras’ election as patriarch was not easily achieved both because he did not have Turkish citizenship and because of the cautious attitude demonstrated by Turkey during the selection process. At the end of the election process during which the United States has taken a cautious stance with Turkey, Athenagoras was elected as the Patriarch. As soon as he started the job, with his pro-US rhetoric and close relations with the Turkish official circles, the new Patriarch showed that he was a cleric who could meet the expectations. Being the religious pillar of the Truman doctrine, as he himself stated, Athenagoras’ efforts were also welcomed by the US and Turkish authorities. At the same time, Athenagoras's pro-Turkish and pro-American stance has caused discomfort within the Greek community over time, leading to some reactions against him.

“The World's Greatest Hypocrites”: White Men and Diplomatic Reporting in the Early Cold War

When incorporating the press into historical narratives, scholars have often relied on published newspaper and magazine articles without interrogating how those pieces were produced. This article relies on the under-used archival papers of journalists in the early Cold War period to argue that they actively created a Washington consensus on foreign policy that kept economic determinism out of the U.S. public's understanding of policies like the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. In private, however, the more anticommunist public narrative was contradicted by a discourse that emphasized the importance of access to colonial raw materials. This private discourse was enabled by the Washington press corps’ social spaces, which were segregated by race and gender and helped create a worldview that acknowledged the hypocrisy of the U.S. government but not their own.

Gifted Greek: The Enigma of Andreas Papandreou

Gifted Greek: The Enigma of Andreas Papandreou

Lessons of the Cold War

Lessons of the Cold War

The Cold War: A World History

The Cold War: A World History

The Truman’s Doctrine of 1947 as evaluated by modern Russian scientists

The article examines the state of coverage and completeness of the study of the problem of the proclaimed foreign policy doctrine of Harry Truman in 1947 in Russian historiography. The aim of the study is to analyze the interpretations of the doctrine covered by Russian historical science. The author thoroughly considers the evolution of opinions and positions of Russian scientists, traces the specifics of their interpretation of views on the renewed postwar US foreign policy. The research methods are the principles of scientific objectivity and historicism. The methodological basis of the article is formed by general scientific and special principles and techniques of scientific knowledge. To formulate the conclusions of the study, the method of generalization and modeling is applied. Main results and conclusions. It is revealed that in Russian historiography there is a radical change of views on the Truman doctrine, its purpose and purpose. Russian historical thought does not cover it as an aggressive policy, but on the contrary explains its emergence as a geopolitical necessity. It is determined that the Americanists of Russia focused on the theoretical origins of the doctrine. It is assessed as a priority of the renewed foreign policy and is called the one that marked the beginning of a new stage in international history. Discussions about the Truman Doctrine on the question of the Cold War are particularly controversial. Historiographical analysis convincingly proves that the vast majority of Russian researchers do not see the doctrine as the cause and beginning of the Cold War. The Truman Doctrine of 1947, in their view, became only a certain stage, the basis, the declaration of its origin. In a comparative aspect, Russian historians analyze the ideological contradictions of the two superpowers. It is highlighted that foreign policy doctrine played a pivotal role in US postwar history. Modern Russian science has changed the vision of the content of the proclaimed doctrine. Russian researchers in American studies emphasize that the history of US foreign policy has long been one of the most falsified topics in their historiography. Now there are significant changes in the views of Russian researchers on international relations in the postwar period. Historiographical discussions of Russian Americanists in studying the problem of the United States’ transition to a renewed foreign policy course highlight the national security imperative. The approach to the study of US international policy has changed. The result of these changes can be found in archives and publications of modern unbiased scientific papers. The vast majority of Russian scholars believe that the renewed foreign policy of the United States marked the beginning of a new stage in international relations, became one of the first practical steps of the United States in the Cold War. And the goals and objectives set in 1947 continue to be the foundation of American economic aid programs today. According to Russian historical science, the renewed foreign policy of the United States continues to this day, the proclaimed rhetoric of the 33rd President Harry Truman is implemented by the American establishment today. Practical importance of research: main results and conclusions can be used for further research of the Truman Doctrine as part of the Cold War history. Originality is due to extensive discussions in scientific and social circles on the formation of the conceptual foundations of US foreign policy in the second half of the twentieth century. Scientific novelty: for the first time in Ukrainian historiography, the views of Russian historians on the proclaimed Truman doctrine are analyzed. Article type: analytical.

Legacy of the Truman Doctrine on Turkish-American Relations: A Political Economy Perspective

This paper aims to scrutinise the need for a new path in Turkish-American relations from a political economy perspective with a strong emphasis on the legacy of the Truman Doctrine. The paper is based on the assumption that Turkish-American relations need a renewed policy paradigm and argues that matters of controversy are likely to prevail unless such a paradigm is found on a political economy basis. Even though the task of reviving Turkish-American relations via tools of political economy is not an easy one, there are several steps to be taken, which can pave the way to this goal.