Trigonometrical Survey Research Articles

The Indian Survey 1

THIS is the fifth report of the amalgamated Department of Surveys under the Government of India. It is divided into two parts with an appendix. Part I. gives a summary of the operations of the great trigonometrical, the topographical, and revenue survey parties; also of the geographical, geodetic, and tidal, and levelling operations. Part II. describes the operations at the Head-Quarters Offices, viz. the Surveyor-General's Office, the Revenue Survey Office, the Lithographic Office, the Photographic Office, and the Mathematical Instrument Department, all in Calcutta; and of the Trigonometrical Survey Office in Dehra Dun. Index charts, coloured maps, and sketches showing the present state of this very important department accompany this report; to which is prefixed, as frontispiece, a “Specimen of Heliogravure by Major Waterhouse's Process,” which invites the special attention of photographers and engravers. An appendix, separately paged, of 120 pages, completes the volume, and consists of extracts from the narrative report of the executive officers in charge of the survey parties and operations.

Geographical Notes

THE first report of Prof. Hull, dated from Gaza, January 1, has been received. It is necessarily brief, the details being reserved for the full report to follow, but it announces the success of the expedition so far. The professor has made a complete geological survey of the Wady Arabah and the Dead Sea, with a traverse across Southern Palestine. Capt. Kitchener, R. E., who accompanied him, has made a trigonometrical survey. Akabih he found to be laid down too far south; the south part of the Dead Sea as shown on the maps, is quite out of its true shape and position, and the Lisan has to be shifted three miles. From Gaza, when the rest of the party were in quarantine, Capt. Kitchener rode back to Egypt, accompanied by four Arabs only. He took a previously unknown route, particulars as to which will follow, and arrived at Ismailia after a ride of 200 miles. He was everywhere well received by the Arabs, who took him for a cousin of Sheikh Abdullah (the late Prof. Palmer), whose memory is still revered among them, and whose murder they still deplore. They are also reported to be deeply impressed with the energy and pertinacity of Sir Charles Warren's pursuit of the murderers. As regards the other members of Prof. Hull's party, Mr. Hart is reported to have made large additions to the flora; Mr. Lawrence has kept a continuous series of meteorological observations, and Mr. Gordon Hull has obtained a hundred photographs, large and small. Prof. Hull had still to execute two traverses of the country, in which he is no doubt at present engaged. The complete reports, both of himself and Capt. Kitchener, will be extremely important. They will probably be published in the journal of the Society.

III. Report on the tidal disturbances caused by the volcanic eruptions at Java, August 27 and 28, 1883, and the propagations of the ‘super-tidal’ waves. By Major A. W. Baird, R. E. Communicated by Lieutenant-General J. T. Walker, R. E., F. R. S., with a letter from the communicator containing an abstract of the contents of the paper

At the request of Major A. W. Baird, R. E., I herewith forward for presentation to the Royal Society, a report which he has prepared on the Tidal Disturbances caused by the now famous volcanic eruptions which occurred on the 27th and 28th August last year, in the Island of Krakatoa and the Straits of Sunda, between Sumatra and Java. For some years past it has been Major Baird’s special duty, as an officer if the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, to supervise the sperations for the investigation of tidal phenomena which have been tarried on under the orders of the Government at a number of points an the Indian coast lines from Kurrachee round to Moulmein, and also at Aden. A tidal observatory, containing a self-registering tide- gauge, and all the necessary meteorological instruments, has been established at each of these points; every observatory has a man in charge who tends the instruments, sets the diagrams to true time as received telegraphically from Madras, and submits daily reports to Major Baird. After the occurrence of the eruptions at Krakatoa, Major Baird made a careful examination of the diagrams at the whole of his tidal stations, seventeen in number, and at twelve of them he found more or less distinct evidence of tidal disturbance. In the accompanying report he sets forth this evidence, and gives such further facts as he has been able to collect from information supplied by eye-witnesses of the disturbances on the coasts of Ceylon and at other localities where as yet tidal stations have not been established. He also gives the magnitudes of the “supertidal” waves and the intervals between them; shows by calculation the probable time of the great eruption at Krakatoa; and then deduces the velocities of the waves which reached each station. He furnishes copies, on a much reduced scale, of the original diagrams of the tidal registrations of the 27th and 28th August which were made at each of his own stations; and he also gives a chart of a portion of the Indian Ocean which he has prepared to illustrate the course of the first great supertidal wave.

The Java Eruption and Earthquake Waves

FOR the following facts the writer is indebted to the kindness of Herr Emil Metzger, formerly Director of Surveys in the Dutch Government service in Java. His original account, written before September 12, has just appeared in the Globus. The present paper is based upon that, but it contains several small additions and corrections which have been received directly from the author. Most of the geographical details here given are based on the Trigonometrical Survey of the coast of Java, which was carried out under Herr Metzger's immediate direction in 1868–69.

Geographical Notes

THE mail from India brings the news of the death of a very meritorious Indian servant, and one of the most remarkable of living travellers—Nain Singh, or the Pundit No. 9, as he was officially known, a hillman of the Khsettriya, or warrior caste. Nearly thirty years ago he offered his services as native assistant to that intrepid but unfortunate explorer Herr Schla-gentweit. In the year 1863 he became one of the staff of trained native explorers under the orders of Col. Montgomerie of the Trigonometrical Survey, and it was in this capacity that he earned his reputation. The experience which Nain Singh had acquired with Herr Schlagentweit was held peculiarly to fit him for employment in the most interesting department of Indian geographical research—the exploration of the Trans-Himalayan regions. The success which attended his journeys beyond the great northern mountain barrier of India exceeded the expectations of even the talented officer who had specially trained him for the work. In 1866 he determined the true position of Lhasa; in 1867 he visited the celebrated gold mines of Thok Jalung, and seven years later he began bis most celebrated tour of all, that through Thibet from west to east. During this he visited the capital of the Dalai Lama, took numerous observations, and threw much fresh light on the question of the Sanpu River, and whether its lower course is the Brahmapootra or not. This exploit closed Nain Singh's public career. He was awarded the Royal medal by the Royal Geographical Society, and the Indian Government granted him a small estate, where he died towards the end of last January. There have been few native Indian officials who have done more useful or more durable service than the explorer Nain Singh.

The Madeira Earth-electric Cloud again

WHAT a valuable paper, Mr. Editor, you have published this week from Mr. J. B. N. Hennessey, with its diagram of the new set of sun-spots which broke out suddenly near the centre of the sun's disk, between 4h. and 5h. p.m., on July 25, as recorded by the photo-heliograph of the Indian Trigonometrical Survey, under his able charge, at Dehra.

“Herschel and Cameron's Practical Astronomy”

I RECEIVED not long ago by post a pamphlet bound, rather takingly, in red cloth wrapper, with gilt letter title, stamped largely diagonal-wise on the side; which title consisted of these words—“Herschel and Cameron's Practical Astronomy.” The title-page assigns the authorship to one “Alex. Mackenzie Cameron,” and adds “Revised throughout by Capt. John Herschel, R.E., in charge Astronomical Branch of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India.”

Mountain Ranges

THE reply which Mr. H. B. Medlicott has made to me in NATURE, vol. xxi. p. 301, seems only to obscure rather than set aside or remove my objections. In the second sentence it is said that I “take geologists to task for not making their descriptions to fit in with my delineation of purely superficial features.” But my complaint was based, not on my delineation, but on a trigonometrical survey; and it was caused by a description—not of the geology, but of the physical geography of India, in connection with a map of its hill ranges, that has nothing geological about it. It is in this expressly geographical part of the manual that I find the greatest range of snowy peaks in the world omitted from a geographical notice and delineation of the Himalaya. I did not allude at all to geology.

Explorations in Western Tibet, by the Trans-Himalayan Parties of the Indian Trigonometrical Survey

Explorations in Western Tibet, by the Trans-Himalayan Parties of the Indian Trigonometrical Survey

Geographical Notes

THE anniversary meeting of the Royal Geographical Society was held on Monday last, Sir Rutherford Alcock, vice-president, in the chair. From the Council report it appears that there is no diminution in the number of Fellows, notwithstanding the losses from various causes. From a financial point of view, the Society continues to prosper, its assets being set down at over 37,000l., exclusive of its valuable map collection and library, both of which have received large accessions during the past year. It will be interesting to practical geographers to learn that considerable progress has been made with the revision of the classified register of maps and the preparation of an alphabetical catalogue of all the maps in the Society's collection and publications, and especially that the new catalogue is being prepared with a view to its being subsequently printed. We are also informed that a case containing a set of traveller's instruments, such as the Society recommend, has been placed in the map-room. At the conclusion of the report the royal medals were presented to Count Schouvaloff, the Russian ambassador (for Col. Prejevalsky), and General Sir Lintorn Simmons, R.E., G.C.B. (for Capt. W. J. Gill, R.E.), after which came the presentation of the Public Schools' Prize Medals, the award of which we have already recorded, and some interesting remarks on the teaching of geography, by the Rev. G. Butler, headmaster of Liverpool College. The Hon. G. C. Brodrick announced the subject for next year's examination would be “Western Africa, from the Sahara to the Congo, and as far eastwards as Nyangwé.” The Earl of North-brook was elected president, and among the new members of council are General R. Strachey and General Sir H. L. Thuillier, late head of the great Trigonometrical Survey of India, both of whom are well known as scientific geographers. The Society being without a president, the annual address on the progress of geography was delivered by Mr. Clements R. Markham, the senior secretary. The chief items of news are that Lieut. R. C. Temple, of the 1st Gurkhas, has constructed a map of a large tract of previously unknown country between Candahar and Dehra Ghazi Khan, and has promised to furnish an account of the region, and that Mr. Whitely is about to attempt an examination of the mysterious Mount Roraima and its neighbourhood, in the interior of Guiana. In conclusion, Mr. Markham called attention to the shortcomings of the Admiralty in the surveying department, expressing a hope that they might be induced to send out a properly equipped surveying-vessel to the southern part of the east and west coasts of Africa, “which have not been sounded since the days of Capt. Owen, half a century ago.”

GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES

WE last week referred to the important work done by Sir Andrew Scott Waugh in connection with the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, and from the recently issued Report of Colonel Walker, the present Superintendent of the Survey, it will be seen that the work is being carried on with unabated energy. The Report refers to 1876-77, and tells us that during that year an area of 5,019 square miles was covered by principal triangulation; under secondary triangulation 5,400 square miles have been covered with points for the topographical survey, 3,100 miles have been operated in pari passu with the principal triangulation, and in an area of 23,600 square miles, lying mostly in portions of the Himalayas which are inaccessible to Europeans, a number of points have been fixed which will be valuable for geographical rectifications. The topography of upwards of 5,000 square miles has been completed in scales varying from half an inch to two inches, while several important geodetic operations were accomplished. In these Reports there is generally some important geographical work to record, accomplished by one of the native officials of the Survey. During the year 1876, the Mullah, one of the Survey explorers, made a survey up the course of the Indus from the point where it enters the plains above Attok, to the point where it is joined by the river of Gilghit. This is the only portion of the Indus which had remained unexplored. Here the river traverses a distance of some 220 miles, descending from a height of about 5,000 feet to that of 1,200 feet above sea-level. Its way winds tortuously through great mountain ranges, whose peaks are rarely less than 15,000 feet in height, and culminate in the Nanga Parbat, the well-known mountain, whose height, 26,620 feet, is only exceeded by a very few of the great peaks of the Himalayas. The river in many places is hemmed in so closely by these great ranges that its valley is but a deep-cut, narrow gorge, and, as a rule, there is more of open space and culturable land in the lateral valleys, nestling between the spurs of the surrounding ranges, than in the principal valley itself. No European has ever penetrated this region, and the Mullah only managed it by travelling as a privileged trader. Very difficult of access from all quarters, it is inhabited by a number of hill tribes, independent and suspicious of each other, and protected from each other by natural barriers and fastnesses. Each community elects its own rulers, and has little intercourse with its neighbours, and with the outer world only by means of privileged traders.

Geographical Notes

ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY MEDALS.—The Founder's Medal for 1878, of the Royal Geographical Society, has been awarded to Baron F. von Richthofen for his extensive travels and scientific explorations in China; also for his great work now in course of publication, in which the materials accumulated during his long journeys are elaborated with remarkable lucidity and completeness. The Patron's Medal has been given to Capt. Henry Trotter, R.E., for his services to geography, in having conducted the survey operations of the late Mission to Eastern Turkistan, under Sir Douglas Forsyth, which resulted in the connection of the Trigono-metrical Survey of India with the Russian Surveys from. Siberia, and for having further greatly improved the map of Central Asia. Mr. Stanley, being already a medallist, is disqualified from receiving a similar honour, but he has been elected an honorary corresponding member, and is to receive the thanks of the Council for his discoveries.

The Late Colonel Strange, F. R. S.

LIEUT.-COL. ALEXANDER STRANGE, F.R.S, whose death we last week announced, was the fourth son of the late Sir Thomas Strange, and was born at Westminster on the 27th of April, 1818, and was educated at Harrow. On leaving school in 1834, at the early age of sixteen, he proceeded to India, and joined the 7th Regiment of Madras Light Cavalry, where his natural talents began to develop themselves. He shortly afterwards made the friendship of General Worster, who soon discovered that he had mechanical abilities of the highest order, and who subsequently instructed him in the use of astronomical and surveying instruments, and pointed out to him that nature had intended him for a scientific career. During the next few years he became a devoted student at the Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory at Simla, then under the direction of Major-General Boileau, R.E., at whose recommendation he was nominated, in 1847, by Col. (now Sir Andrew) Waugh, R.E., Surveyor-General of India, to the office of Second Assistant in the Great Trigonometrical Survey, where he found work suited to his talents. He was originally selected on account of his ability as an observer, and for his extraordinary mechanical skill, which in this department was of special value, and was displayed in such a remarkable degree as to call forth cae highest commendation from Col. Waugh. In the season 1848–49 he was attached to the party under Capt. (now Col.) Renny Tailyour, R.E., in order that he might acquire a practical knowledge of geodetical operations. Such was the rapidity with which he made himself master oi this difficult subject, that in 1850 he was promoted to the grade of First Assistant. Capt. Tailyour was ordered to undertake the triangu-lation of what is known as the “Karáchi Longitudinal Series,” which constitutes the southern flank of that considerable portion of the principal triangulation of the Survey of India known as the North-west Quadrilateral. It commences at Sironj in Central India, and terminates at Karáchi, in Sind. The extent of this arc of longitude is equivalent to 670 miles in length, covers an area of 23,000 square miles, and is one of the largest longitudinal arcs ever measured on the surface of the globe. At the end of the first season, Capt. Tailyour's services being required at head-quarters, Capt. Strange was ordered to take over the entire charge of the Series, and it is on this great undertaking that his fame as an Indian Surveyor rests. After crossing the Desert, over which the triangulation had to be carried nearly 200 miles, the work was carried on with the highest skill across the Plains of Sind, until at length, after much anxiety, and having overcome almost insuperable difficulties, the last angle which completed this great triangulation was measured on April 22, 1853, and the work brought to a successful close.

II. Some particulars of the transit of Venus across the Sun, December 9, 1874, observed on the Himalaya Mountains, Mussoorie, at May-Villa Station, Lat. 30° 28′ N., long. 78° 3′. E., height above sea 6765 feet

Naturally sharing in the great interest excited by the transit of Venus, which occurred this forenoon, I proposed that I should observe the event with the equatoreal of the Royal Society, which Capt. J. Herschel, R. E., in his absence from India, had temporarily placed at my disposal; and the project meeting with liberal support from Col. J. T. Walker, R. E., Superintendent, Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, I was enabled, through his kindness, to provide myself with four chronometers, a good altazimuth, a barometer, thermometers, and other articles of equipment necessary for the undertaking. My especial object in view was to observe the transit from a considerable height ; and this condition was easily secured through the circumstance that I was located only 14 miles from Mussoorie, on the Himalaya Mountains. No doubt a station on these mountains would be very liable to an envelope of mist and cloud at the time of year in question; but, on the other hand, were really good weather to prevail, I should enjoy the advantages of an exquisitely clear atmosphere, such as I have never experienced save on the Himalayas.

The Indian Trigonometrical Survey *

ONE does not usually expect to find much of general interest in the Report of a Trigonometrical Survey. Col, Walker's admirably drawn-up Report, however, includes some matter of more than special value; indeed, many of the details connected with the immediate work of the Survey are calculated to interest the general reader, they are concerned to such a large extent with the peculiar difficulties to be overcome by the various parties, difficulties which make ordinary survey work look like mere child's play.

Art. X.—Sîgiri, the Lion Rock, near Pulastipura, Ceylon; and the Thirty-ninth Chapter of the Mahâvaṁsa

In Lat. 7° 59′ N., Long. 81° E., about fourteen miles N.E. of Dambulla, and about seventeen miles nearly due W. of Parâkrama Bâhu's capital, Pulastipura, is the singular natural stronghold referred to in the Thirty-ninth Chapter of the Mahâvamsa, and first re-discovered by Major Forbes, of the Ceylon Civil Service, in the year 1831. Sir Emerson Tennent (Ceylon, vol. i. p. 15) says of it: “Sîgiri is the only example in Ceylon of those solitary acclivities, which form so remarkable a feature in the table-land of the Dekkan, starting abruptly from the plain with scarped and perpendicular sides; and converted by the Indians into strongholds, accessible only by precipitous pathways, or steps hewn in the solid rock.” And, again (vol. ii. p. 579): “This gigantic cylindrical rock starts upward to a height prodigious in comparison with its section at any point, the area of its upper surface being little more than an acre in extent. Its scarped walls are nearly perpendicular, and in some places they overhang their base. The formation of this singular cliff can only be ascribed to its upheaval by a subterranean force, so circumscribed in action that its effects were confined within a very few yards, yet so irresistible as to have shot aloft this prodigious pencil of stone to the height of nearly 400 feet.” The height of the rock above the sea is probably more than this—a point which soon will be (if it is not already) settled by the Surveyors engaged in the Trigonometrical Survey of that part of Ceylon. I am also informed that the occurrence of so circumscribed and yet so irresistible a subterranean force is almost, if not quite impossible, and that the present position of Sîgiri, like that of the many similar strongholds in the table-lands of South India, may be more easily explained by a general subsidence of the soil around it. It is to be regretted that the geological history of Ceylon altogether has received so little attention; but it seems certain that Sîgiri owes its origin to the same force to which is due the great elevation which stretches for more than 150 miles in a N.E. direction from below Adam's Peak to Trinkomali, and forms the principal gneiss and granite mountain ranges of Ceylon, which, since their first appearance above the waters, have certainly undergone no second immersion. If this be so, then the crag of Sîgiri, which lies almost in the centre line of that upheaval, must be among those parts of the now habitable globe which first emerged from the deep, and have been longest accessible to man.

II. Note on the periodicity of rainfall

1. Interested in the inquiry proposed by Mr. Meldrum, as to whether rainfall varies with the sun-spot area, I examined the register kept at the office of the Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, and am enabled, through the courtesy of Colonel J. T. Walker, R. E., to communicate the results. These are probably not devoid of peculiar interest, from the abnormal conditions presented by the stations of observation, which are far inland, and on, or adjoining, lofty mountains, as appears from the following brief descriptions. 2. Mussoorie station is on the southernmost range of the Himalaya Mountains, lat. N. 30° 28', long. E. 78° 7', height 6500 feet ; this range rises suddenly and forms the northern boundary of the Dehra Doon (or Dehra valley), which is some 18 miles wide and 40 miles long, and is bounded to the south by the Sewalik range of hills, about 3500 feet high. Dehra station is 2200 feet high, 10 miles south bf Mussoorie station, and in the Dehra valley.

Abstract of the Reports of the Surveys and other Geographical Operations in India for 1870–71

WE learn from these reports that during the season of 1870–71, the Great Trigonometrical Survey has been proceeded with on six series, and the complete work is represented by 11,203 square miles of principal, and 10,076 of secondary triangulation. The total area surveyed up to 1871 by the Topographical Surveys which do not include the Topographical work of the Trigonometrical Survey, is 665,909 square miles, three times the area of France. The Geological Survey has been going on more briskly than in previous years, and the Geological Surveyors are gradually building up the materials which will enable a geological map of India to be prepared. The tidal observations, from which much was expected, and for which gauges were made and sent out to India more than two years ago, were not gone on with on account of the financial difficulties of the Indian government. The government has finally adopted Mr. Hunter's plan for the spelling of Indian names; it is as near an approach to what is known as the “scientific system,” as the public in the present state of education are able to endure. The “scientific system” consists in scrupulously rendering letter for letter, without any particular care to preserve the pronunciation. Uniformity in the spelling of geographical names is a great matter, no matter on what principle it may be based.

I. On a new great theodolite to be used on the great trigo­nometrical survey of India, with a short note on the performance of a zenith-sector employed on the same work

On the 28th of February, 1867, I had the honour of submitting to the inspection of the Royal Society a Transit-Instrument and a Zenith-Sector made for the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, to be used re­spectively for the determination of longitude and latitude on that work. These were one instalment of the following list of geodesical and astronomical instruments which the Secretary of State for India deputed me to design and superintend under construction :— One Great Theodolite,with a 3-feet Horizontal Circle. By Messrs, Troughton and Simms. Two Zenith-Sectors. By Messrs. Troughton and Simms. Two 5- feet Transit-Instruments. By Messrs. T. Cooke and Sons, York.

On a new great theodolite to be used on the great trigonometrical survey of india, with a short note on the performance of a zenith-sector employed on the same work

Since my paper with the above title was read, it has occurred to me that some particulars as to the weight of the instrument might interest those engaged practically in Geodesical work. The following are the weights of the main parts as separated for carriage:— (1) Stand , with Levelling-apparatus complete ..... 108 (2) Iron Circle of Stand with 3 Centering-Screws ... 156 (3) Tribrach , with Horizontal Circle, Guard ditto, Vertical Axis, and Relieving-apparatus ....... 180 (4) Vertical-Axis Socket , with 5 Horizontal-Microscope arms, Elliptical Table, Pillars, 2 Azimuthal Levels, 2 Vertical ditto, 2 Vertical Microscopes, 2 Pointer ditto, Horizontal Tangent-Screw plates ........ 235 (5) Telescope , with Vertical Circle ........... 64 (6) Miscellaneous appliances and spare parts (about) ........ 130 Weight of Instrument ............................................ 873 (7) Aggregate weight of field packing-cases, assumed at 2/3 the weight of contents ... 582 Total weight of Instrument in field-cases ...................... 1455