Triad Approach Research Articles

Improving Soil Investigations at Brownfield Sites Using a Flexible Work Strategy and Screening Methods Inspired by the US Environmental Protection Agency's Triad Approach

Investigations of polluted brownfield sites and sample analyses are expensive, and the resulting data are often of poor quality. Efforts are needed, therefore, to improve the methods used in investigations of brownfield sites to both reduce costs and improve the quality of the results. One approach that could be useful for both of these purposes is the triad strategy, developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency, in which managing uncertainty is a central feature. In the investigations reported here, a field study was conducted to identify possible ways in which uncertainties could be managed in practice. One example considered involves optimizing the uncertainty by adjusting the sizes of samples and the efforts expended in analytical work according to the specific aims of the project. In addition, the potential utility of several toxicity assessment methods for screening sites was evaluated. As well as presenting the results of these assessments, in this contribution we discuss ways in which a flexible work strategy and screening methods inspired of the triad philosophy could be incorporated into the Swedish approach to remediate brownfield sites. A tiered approach taking advantage of field and screening methods is proposed to assess brownfield sites focusing on the response and acceptable uncertainty that are required for the task.

Initial Risk-Based Screening of Potential Brownfield Development Sites

Brownfield redevelopment is sustainable only when it is a transparent process protective of public health. The objective of the brownfield health risk screening matrix is to provide a scientifically based, transparent process to evaluate human health risks on proposed redevelopment sites as well as a framework that can be critically evaluated by both environmentalists and the community in general. Public discussion and understanding of current health risk assessment, as well as the risks specific to each brownfield redevelopment site, are essential for an effective brownfield redevelopment program. The Brownfields Redevelopment Program was started by the EPA in 1995 and seeks to use already contaminated sites rather than contaminate even more greenfields. Two of the biggest difficulties are making redevelopment profitable and protecting human health. Traditional human health risk assessment evaluates single chemical exposures and identifies the level below which no adverse effect will occur to the most sensitive subgroups of the population. For cancer–causing chemicals the risk must be lower than 1:1,000,000. When brownfield redevelopment sites are associated with high cost, extensive time and unmanageable uncertainty, additional greenfield sites will become contaminated and the contamination on current brownfield sites will remain un-remediated. The citizens' advisory group addressing brownfields in a southern New York county has developed a risk matrix to evaluate the uncertainty of the available data, the toxicity of the known or suspected contaminants and the likely exposure routes for each brownfield site in the county. The matrix categorizes sites as high, medium or low risk according to exposure groups. The risk matrix complements the triad approach currently being developed by EPA to identify and manage project decision uncertainties, addresses uncertainty as well as toxicity and has the potential to reduce the cost of traditional health risk assessment at brownfield redevelopment sites.

Bowel cancer: the outcome is improving

The management of rectal cancer has been revolutionised over the last 20 years through improvements in staging, surgery and the use of radiotherapy and combination chemoradiotherapy. The traditional approach involved surgery followed by pathological assessment of the specimen reporting the completeness of excision. Incomplete excision in many cases led to local recurrence of the cancer within the pelvis with the disabling symptoms of pelvic pain, bowel fistulation and bowel and bladder dysfunction. Indeed, many patients died with local recurrence alone and salvage therapy in these patients was rarely successful. However, the recognition of the advantage of pre-operative therapy for patients in whom surgery would not provide local cure has been a major advance. The ability to downstage/downsize the tumour before curative surgery has improved outcome. However, these pre-operative therapies are toxic and not without their own complications, therefore the select use, targeted at the appropriate patient, represents the 'gold-standard'. The development of magnetic resonance imaging staging that accurately predicts operability has completed this triad approach which is focused through the weekly multidisciplinary team meeting. National acceptance of these techniques and standards can only improve the outcome for patients with this disease.

The adaptive capacity of forest management to changing fire regimes in the boreal forest of Quebec

Climate influences natural processes at multiple spatial and temporal scales. Consequently, climate change raises many challenges for sustainable forest management; among them, the integration of fire and forest management is increasingly discussed. We propose here an evaluation of the adaptive capacity of forest management under changing forest fire regimes under climate change in the boreal forest of Quebec. Adaptation begins by reinterpreting current practices dealing with climatically driven variability. Among them, fire suppression, and regeneration enhancement can contribute to coping with some impacts of climate change. However, there is an increasing need to develop more integrative and spatially explicit management strategies to decrease the vulnerability of forest management to changing fire risk. Some developing management strategies, such as fuel management or the triad approach (zoning system for conservation, intensive, and extensive forest management), present an interesting potential for integrating the fire risk in management plans. While fuel management and fire suppression are indicated for particularly severe fire regimes, protection against insects, and maintaining a shorter disturbance cycle using forest management represent the preferred adaptation options where the fire cycle is lengthening under climate change. Key words: forest fire, fire risk, climate change, vulnerability, impacts, adaptation strategy, adaptation options, sustainable forest management, fire management

Bacterial Community Structure Analyses to Assess Pollution of Water and Sediments in the Lake Shkodra/Skadar, Balkan Peninsula (8 pp)

Lake Skadar is the largest lake of the Balkan Peninsula, located along the Montenegro-Albanian border. The unique features of the lake and wide range of endemic, and rare or endangered plant and animal species, resulted in the classification of the Skadar as a wetland site of international significance. In spite of its importance, the lake is influenced by inflowing waters from the river Moraca and other regional rivers contaminated by the industry, municipal and agricultural activities in the area. Therefore, the lake has been the subject of various physical, chemical, biological and toxicological examinations. However, community-level analyses are most relevant to assess the effect of stressors on aquatic ecosystems. In the present study, bacterial community structure among differently polluted sites of the lake was compared using a genetic fingerprinting technique. Water and sediment samples were collected from five differently polluted sampling sites on the Lake Skadar in spring and autumn of the same year. The bacterial community structure in the samples was characterized and compared by temporal temperature gel electrophoresis (TTGE) analysis of polymerase chain reaction-amplified bacterial 16S rRNA genes. The TTGE analysis resulted in many distinguishable and reproducible band patterns, allowing a reliable comparison of bacterial communities among sampling sites. Results on the bacterial community structure revealed that three of the selected locations can be considered as sites that have not shown any pollution degradation determined by our method, due to similar structure of a bacterial community in the sediment samples. On the other hand, significant shifts in the bacterial community structure in the mouth of the rivers Moraca and Plavnica were shown. Since the results coincide with some of the bioassays and chemical analysis performed previously, the changes in bacterial community structure are explained as an effect of antropogenic pollution on the lake ecosystem by waters of the river Moraca and the stream Plavnica. The TTGE has proven to be an efficient and reliable method to monitor bacterial dynamics and community shifts in aquatic environments, especially in sediments. Within the variety of environmental quality assessments, the use of TTGE analyses from bacterial communities is strongly recommended, particularly as an initial investigation. However, in any conclusion on the state of the environment, the TTGE results should be combined to some other biological, chemical and hydrological data. Since prokaryotes are a crucial group of organisms in the biosphere, the ecosystem function studies are largely based on bacterial communities. Therefore, bacterial community structure analysis should be a part of an integrated weight of evidence approach in pollution assessment. In case of Triad approach, consisting of chemical analyses, bioassays, and community studies in the field, the TTGE bacterial community structure analyses should be placed in the later Triad leg. In comparison to other community studies, based on various biotic indices, the TTGE bacterial community analysis has proven to be very sensitive, reliable and less time consuming.

Assessing Maternal Genetic Associations

In utero exposures, including maternal phenotypes, are potential risk factors for both early-onset and adult-onset diseases. Two alternative study designs use maternal genotypes at polymorphic loci as biomarkers of an offspring's in utero exposure: (1) a traditional case-control study with logistic regression analysis, in which cases, controls, and mothers of both types of subjects are genotyped; and (2) a case-parent triad study with log-linear analysis, in which cases and both parents are genotyped. We used computer simulations to compare the operating characteristics of the log-linear approach to case-parent triad data and the case-control approach for assessing relative risks (RRs) associated with maternal genotypes. For high-risk allele frequencies (chromosomal prevalence; f) between 0.20 and 0.75, both methods allowed for valid, unbiased estimates of maternal RRs. The case-parent triad approach, however, had 43% greater power, on average, than the case-control approach with an equal number of genotypes, and 13% greater power with an equal number of cases. For example, under dominant inheritance, to detect 2-fold maternal RRs with 200 (or 150) cases when allele prevalence is between 0.15 and 0.40, the case-parent triad and equal-genotype case-control designs had, on average, 87% and 62% power, respectively. As f approached 0 or 1, the power of both methods decreased sharply. The greater efficiency of case-parent triads may be due to the inclusion of paternal genotype information, which allows for independent tests of disease association with maternal or offspring genotypes. These results highlight one potential advantage of case-parent triad data in assessing maternal genetics as risk factors for offspring disease. We discuss these findings and other considerations between the 2 methodological approaches.

Legal and technical defensibility of data and the Triad approach

The Triad approach was developed primarily to limit decision uncertainty during cleanups at hazardous waste sites. The fundamental principles of the Triad approach include development of a site characterization model and use of emerging technologies, which can provide data at a higher density than could be affordably collected using traditional data collection methodologies, to refine the model in essentially real time. New data formats are used collaboratively with data in traditional formats to iteratively pin down the relative concentration, nature, and extent of contaminants, thus minimizing decision uncertainties. This article examines the potential admissibility as evidence in legal proceedings of data collected by technologies designed to improve the density of information that are commonly used during the course of Triad-type projects. The article explains that such criteria may vary depending on the purpose for which the evidence is to be used (e.g., as direct evidence to prove site conditions or as support for the testimony of an expert witness) and the court in which the legal proceeding would take place (e.g., federal court or state court). Admissibility in federal courts of data both as direct evidence and as support for expert witness testimony is covered. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Triad case study: Marine corps base camp pendleton

The U.S. Navy Public Works Center (PWC) Environmental Department San Diego, California is home to the Navy west coast Site Characterization and Analysis Penetrometer System (SCAPS). SCAPS has been extensively used at several Navy sites since 1995 to provide real-time, highdensity data sets. The United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) Triad approach provided an ideal framework for optimizing the use of the Navy SCAPS during a volatile organic compound (VOC) source investigation at Installation Restoration Site 1114 at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton. All three elements of Triad, systematic planning, dynamic work strategy, and use of real time measurement tools, were implemented to manage decision uncertainty and expedite the site management process. The investigation was conducted using the Navy SCAPS outfitted with a cone penetrometer), membrane interface probe and a direct sampling ion trap mass spectrometry detector which allowed for real- time collection of over 690 feet of continuous lithologic information and VOC concentration data. These data were used collaboratively with 24-hour turnaround EPA 8260B VOC groundwater results from temporary direct-push wells to support the conclusion of a limited source area. Implementation of the Triad approach for this investigation provided an expedited high-density data set and a refined Conceptual Site Model (CSM) in real time that resulted in cost savings estimated at $2.5 M and reduction of the site characterization and cleanup schedule by approximately 3 years. This project demonstrates how EPA’s Triad approach can be applied to streamline the site characterization and cleanup process while appropriately managing decision uncertainty in support of defensible site decisions.

Triad case study: Former small arms training range

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) used the Triad approach to expedite site characterization of contaminated soil at the Former Small Arms Evergreen Infiltration Training Range in Fort Lewis, Washington. The characterization was designed to determine if surface soils contain significant concentrations of metals, with the focus on collecting sufficient data for determining appropriate future actions (i.e., risk analysis or soil remediation). A dynamic sampling and analytical strategy based on rapid field based analytical methods was created in order to streamline site activities and save resources while increasing confidence in remediation decisions. Concurrent analysis of soil samples during the Demonstration of Method Applicability (DMA) used both field portable X-ray Fluorescence (FPXRF) and laboratory methodologies to establish a correlation between FPXRF and laboratory data. Immediately following the DMA, contaminated soil from the impact berm was delineated by collecting both FPXRF data and fixed-laboratory confirmation samples. The combined data set provided analytical results that allowed for revisions to the conceptual site model for the range and directed additional sample collection activities to more clearly determine the extent and distribution of soil contamination.

The Triad approach: A catalyst for maturing remediation practice

AbstractMany individual scientific and technical disciplines contribute to the multidisciplinary field of remediation science and practice. Because of the relative youth of this enterprise, disciplinary interests sometimes compete and conflict with the primary goal of achieving protective, cost‐effective, efficient projects. Convergence of viewpoints toward a more mature, common vision is needed. In addition, cleanup programs are changing under the influence of Brownfields initiatives and the needs of environmental insurance underwriters. Investigations and cleanups increasingly need to be affordable, yet transparent and defensible. Disciplinary goals and terminology need to better reflect real‐world site conditions while being more supportive of project needs. Yet, technical considerations alone will not ensure project success; better integration of human factors into project management is also required. The Triad approach is well placed to catalyze maturation of the remediation field because it emphasizes (1) a central theme of managing decision uncertainty; (2) unambiguous technical communications; (3) shortened project life‐cycles and multidisciplinary interactions that rapidly build professional expertise and provide feedback to test and perfect programmatic and field practices; and (4) concepts from “softer” sciences (such as economics, cognitive psychology, and decision theory) to capture important human factors. Triad pushes the cleanup industry toward an integrated, practical, second‐generation paradigm that can successfully manage the complexities of today's cleanup projects. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Triad case study: Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton

AbstractThe U.S. Navy Public Works Center (PWC) Environmental Department, San Diego, California, is home to the Navy West Coast Site Characterization and Analysis Penetrometer System (SCAPS). SCAPS has been extensively used at several Navy sites since 1995 to provide real‐time, high‐density data sets. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Triad approach provided an ideal framework for optimizing the use of the Navy SCAPS during a volatile organic compound (VOC) source investigation at Installation Restoration Site 1114 at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton. All three elements of Triad—systematic planning, dynamic work strategy, and use of real‐time measurement tools—were implemented to manage decision uncertainty and expedite the site management process. The investigation was conducted using the Navy SCAPS, outfitted with a cone penetrometer, membrane interface probe, and a direct sampling ion trap mass spectrometry detector, which allowed for real‐ time collection of over 690 feet of continuous lithologic information and VOC concentration data. These data were used collaboratively with 24‐hour turnaround US EPA 8260B VOC groundwater results from temporary direct‐ push wells to support the conclusion of a limited source area. Implementation of the Triad approach for this investigation provided an expedited high‐density data set and a refined conceptual site model (CSM) in real time that resulted in cost savings estimated at $2.5M and reduction of the site characterization and cleanup schedule by approximately three years. This project demonstrates how the US EPA's Triad approach can be applied to streamline the site characterization and cleanup process while appropriately managing decision uncertainty in support of defensible site decisions. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Systematic planning for Triad projects

AbstractThis article examines specific systematic planning steps that can be used for designing and controlling Triad projects. Triad work strategies act to limit decision uncertainty, expedite schedules to meet project milestones, and reduce costs associated with cleanup activities. As a result, the Triad approach is rapidly increasing in popularity. Good project planning has always been seen as the cornerstone of successful Triad projects. However, the specific steps in the systematic planning process have not been extensively published. Demands of Triad projects, which attempt to make maximum use of innovative technologies and sequencing of activities in a learn‐ as‐you‐go framework, put new demands on regulators and project managers alike. Specific activities and relationships are identified to assist project managers with dynamic work strategies and real‐time measurements to support improved decision making. These include: assembly of stakeholders, a core technical team, and key decisions; development and refinement of a site model; use of demonstrations of methods applicability; development of dynamic work strategies and project sequencing; real‐time data management assessment and presentation; and unitized procurement of technologies and services. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Triad case study: Rattlesnake Creek

AbstractThe U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (US ACE) is responsible for conducting the cleanup of radiological contaminated properties as part of the Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program. One property is the Rattlesnake Creek (RSC) portion of the Ashland sites. The RSC stream sediments are contaminated with thorium‐230, radium‐226, and uranium. The US ACE is closing RSC using protocols contained within the Multi‐Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual (MARSSIM). At RSC, the US ACE developed site‐specific derived concentration guideline level (DCGL) cleanup requirements consistent with the MARSSIM guidance. Because of uncertainty about the distribution of contamination within the creek, the US ACE used the Triad approach to collect data and design remedial actions. Systematic planning helped target the areas of concern, develop a conceptual site model, and identify data gaps to be addressed before remediation plans were finalized. Preremediation sampling and analysis plans were designed to be explicitly consistent with final status survey requirements, allowing data sets to support both excavation planning needs and closure requirements in areas where contamination was not encountered above DCGL standards. Judicious use of real‐ time technologies such as X‐ray fluorescence and gamma walkover surveys minimized expensive off‐ site alpha spectrometry analyses, and at the same time provided the ability to respond to unexpected field conditions. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Triad case study: Former small arms training range

AbstractThe U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (US ACE) used the Triad approach to expedite site characterization of contaminated soil at the Former Small Arms Evergreen Infiltration Training Range in Fort Lewis, Washington. The characterization was designed to determine if surface soils contain significant concentrations of metals, with the focus on collecting sufficient data for determining appropriate future actions (i.e., risk analysis or soil remediation). A dynamic sampling and analytical strategy based on rapid field‐based analytical methods was created in order to streamline site activities and save resources while increasing confidence in remediation decisions. Concurrent analysis of soil samples during the demonstration of method applicability (DMA) used both field portable X‐ray fluorescence (FPXRF) and laboratory methodologies to establish a correlation between FPXRF and laboratory data. Immediately following the DMA, contaminated soil from the impact berm was delineated by collecting both FPXRF data and fixed laboratory confirmation samples. The combined data set provided analytical results that allowed for revisions to the conceptual site model for the range and directed additional sample collection activities to more clearly determine the extent and distribution of soil contamination. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The maturing of the Triad approach: Avoiding misconceptions

AbstractMisunderstandings and misconceptions have arisen as the Triad approach has gained wider application. The Triad initiative's ability to catalyze second‐generation cleanup practices will be hampered if inaccurate or incomplete assumptions create persistent confusion about what Triad is or how it works. This article has been prepared by the multi‐agency workgroup responsible for articulating the Triad approach and coordinating national Triad efforts. It serves to address some misunderstandings about key Triad concepts. As an aid to those wishing to learn more, a new Web site (the Triad Resource Center, http://www.triadcentral.org) and a new Triad reference document from the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) are introduced as sources of explanatory information supporting the Triad approach. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Sediment quality in littoral regions of the Gulf of Cádiz: a triad approach to address the influence of mining activities

To evaluate sediment quality in different areas in the Gulf of Cádiz affected by mining activities, an integrative approach to assessment was used: the Sediment Quality Triad (SQT). Sediment samples were collected at six stations and subjected to replicated sediment acute and chronic toxicity tests, and comprehensive sediment chemistry analyses. Organisms collected synoptically at the same stations were analyzed for histopathological lesions and chemical concentrations in their tissues to determine ‘in situ’ alteration and bioavailability, in place of benthic community structure. The results obtained for each component were linked to the SQT using different methodologies of interpretation and expression of the integrated approach: (a) multivariate analysis, (b) significant statistical differences compared to the reference stations, (c) ANOVA-based pie charts, and (d) classical methods using triangles and the SQT index of pollution. SQT results indicated that the highest pollution was mainly associated with metals from mining activities and polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the Rı́a of Huelva. The use of histopathological measures and bioaccumulation of metals, improved the characterization of ‘gray areas’ of pollution and in the determination of the bioavailability of metals.

Appropriate use of chemical information in a best professional judgment triad weight-of-evidence evaluation of sediment quality

There is increasing support for the use of a best professional judgment, non-numeric, triad weight of evidence approach for evaluating aquatic sediment quality. This approach is based on an integrated use of sediment toxicity/source of bioaccumulatable chemicals, organism assemblages and chemical information to determine the potential for constituents in sediments to be adverse to the beneficial uses of the waterbody in which the sediments are located. This triad approach is a far more reliable approach for evaluating whether a chemical constituent(s) associated with a sediment is adverse to sediment/water quality than a chemical-specific numeric sediment quality guideline. Significant problems occur, however, with the use of this approach by some in incorporating chemical information into the triad. The use of total concentrations of constituents and/or the exceedance of a co-occurrence-based so-called ‘sediment quality guideline’ is technically invalid. Such an approach can distort the triad sediment quality evaluation because it incorporates information into the triad that is not related to the impact of the chemicals on aquatic-life-related beneficial uses. The chemical information that should be used in a triad evaluation includes the chemical forms and concentrations of the constituents of concern in the sediments that can be toxic to aquatic life or that can lead to bioaccumulation in higher-trophic-level organisms that are a threat to these organisms or those who use aquatic life as food. Sediment TIE information and information about the cause of toxicity or the amount of a bioaccumulatable chemical in a bioavailable form in the sediments should be used as a chemical component of a triad.

An ecological rationale for sustainable forest management concepts at Riverside Forest Products, southcentral British Columbia

Riverside Forest Products (Kelowna, British Columbia) has embraced a sustainable forest management approach for the management of one its forest tenures—Tree Farm License 49. This document discusses the rationale behind many of the concepts within this approach in the context of current ecological theory. We focus specifically on the following concepts: (1) forest retention, (2) ecosystem representation, (3) ecological contributions from unharvested forests, (4) zoning and the TRIAD approach, (5) stand-level habitat elements and landscape-level features, and (6) ecological indicators. This document provides an example of the application of current ecological theory within a commercial forestry operation in Canada and is thus broadly applicable to foresters, forest managers, and researchers in most jurisdictions. Key words: British Columbia, criteria and indicators, ecological representation, forest retention, sustainable forest management, Riverside Forest Products, TRIAD

Sediment disturbance off the Tagus Estuary, Western Portugal: chronic contamination, sewage outfall operation and runoff events

Sediment disturbance patterns in the coastal area off the Tagus Estuary (Portugal) have been assessed using a set of combined techniques. The potential sources of disturbance in the area include chronic contamination of the fine sediments originating from the estuary, a local input from a long-sea sewage outfall and occasional high runoff episodes following torrential rain. The Sediment Quality Triad approach, combining environmental chemistry (namely organic contaminants), macrofaunal benthic communities and laboratory sediment toxicity assays, was performed on sediment samples from 20 sites. The samples were collected before the outfall commenced operation and four years after commissioning, in order to evaluate the relative magnitudes of the three potential sources of disturbance. The sediment contamination created by the estuary was identified as the most important cause of reduced sediment quality, as disturbance in all three components of the Sediment Quality Triad were only found in a site located near the estuary.

Using the Triad Approach to expedite the acquisition of an Abbott district school site

AbstractThe Triad Approach was field‐tested to determine if characterization objectives could be met for a brownfields property that had been identified as a future elementary school site. The new school is in response to a New Jersey Supreme Court ruling (the Abbott decision) that directed the state of New Jersey to fund school construction in poorer districts to expand physical facilities to relieve overcrowding. The Triad Approach is promoted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as a process that has the potential to improve the timeliness and efficiency of site characterization, and the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP) recently issued a policy statement supporting its potential. Aggressive school construction deadlines are contingent on property acquisitions that are relatively faster than the traditional investigatory process. In addition, given the future sensitive population, the investigations must be thorough. This case study is among the first studies to document the use of the Triad Approach for a future school site. The Triad Approach was used to define site conditions for six areas of concern in a two‐month time frame (from the start of the planning process to completed investigation). © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.