Tree Components Research Articles

Feasibility Study on the Classification of Persimmon Trees’ Components Based on Hyperspectral LiDAR

Intelligent management of trees is essential for precise production management in orchards. Extracting components' information from individual fruit trees is critical for analyzing and understanding their general growth. This study proposes a method to classify persimmon tree components based on hyperspectral LiDAR data. We extracted nine spectral feature parameters from the colorful point cloud data and performed preliminary classification using random forest, support vector machine, and backpropagation neural network methods. However, the misclassification of edge points with spectral information reduced the accuracy of the classification. To address this, we introduced a reprogramming strategy by fusing spatial constraints with spectral information, which increased the overall classification accuracy by 6.55%. We completed a 3D reconstruction of classification results in spatial coordinates. The proposed method is sensitive to edge points and shows excellent performance for classifying persimmon tree components.

Pharmacognostic, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review of Ficus religiosa

Ficus Religiosa is a perennial evergreen tree. It is belonging to moraceae own circle of relatives and In India its commonly referred to as Peepal tree, Bodhi tree. The tree is local of India. Peepal tree incorporates many main bioactive components which own diverse pharmacological interest and additionally beneficial with inside the remedy of diverse illnesses and problems consists of Diabetes, ulcer, cancer, epilepsy, pores and skin illnesses, flu and additionally own many medicinal interest together with anti-inflammatory interest, analgesic interest, anti-acetyl cholinesterase interest, anti-helminthic interest and wound recovery interest and additionally famous a few different interest together with antibacterial, anti-fungal etc. All components of tree (leaves, bark, fruit, root and flower) are beneficial for the preparation of many ayurvedic components and beneficial for making natural treatments etc. that is beneficial for deal with and cure diverse illnesses. The tree product now no longer reasons any main or intense aspect effect. The foremost intention of this review/take a look at turned into to find out or sell the information approximately this multipurpose medicinal valued tree.

Additive modeling systems to simultaneously predict aboveground biomass and carbon for Litsea glutinosa of agroforestry model in tropical highlands

Aim of study: To develop and cross-validate simultaneous modeling systems for estimating components and total tree aboveground biomass and carbon of Litsea glutinosa in an agroforestry model with cassava.
 Area of study: In the Central Highlands of Vietnam, the agroforestry model widely planted on fallow land of ethnic minorities is a mixture of 65% L. glutinosa in combination with 35% cassava (Manihot esculenta).
 Material and methods: Twenty-two 300-m2 circular sample plots were located, representing the range of tree age, plantation density, and a 6-7 year rotation cycle. In each sample plot, one selected tree with a diameter at breast height equal to the plot quadratic mean diameter was destructively sampled. The relationships among tree aboveground biomass and carbon (AGB/AGC) and their components with dendrometric variables diameter, height, age, and crown area were examined using factor analysis. To fit systems of equations for AGB/AGC and their components, we compared two methods: weighted nonlinear least-squares (WNLS) and weighted nonlinear seemingly unrelated regression (WNSUR).
 Main results: The results of the leave-one-out cross-validation showed that the simultaneous WNSUR approach to modeling systems of four tree components, total biomass, and carbon provided better results than independent WNLS models.
 Research highlights: The simultaneous WNSUR modeling system provided improved and reliable estimates of tree components, total biomass, and carbon for L. glutinosa in an agroforestry model with cassava compared to independently fitted WNLS models.

Agronomic performance and productivity of Arabica coffee intercropped with timber species

The insertion of the tree component in coffee production is a strategy from an economic and environmental perspective. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the temporal influence on the agronomic and productive performance of the coffee crop under the interference of different tree species as a function of spacing. The experiment was set in the municipality of Santo Antônio de Amparo-MG, in 2012, and conducted in a randomized block design with four replications. The treatments were: cultivar ‘Catuai Vermelho IAC 99’ in monoculture (3.40 m x 0.65 m) and intercropped with African mahogany, teak and pink cedar, in two spacings (9 x 13.6 m and 18 x 13.6 m), in coffee rows. Three coffee rows were fixed between rows, totaling 13.6 m. The following variables were evaluated: height (m), stem diameter (cm), crown diameter (m), productivity (bags ha-1) and yield (l/sc) for coffee. From the evaluations, there is a significant effect of height, productivity and yield for the coffee crop. The system intercropped with tree species did not influence coffee productivity and yield until the 3rd harvest and, for the 5th harvest, intercropping with mahogany favored productivity, although the accumulated productivity did not show any treatment effect.

How much carbon do Argentine Pampas Pinus radiata plantations store?

Aim of study: To quantify the biomass and carbon stored in the main ecosystem components in Pinus radiata D. Don plantations across an age sequence in the Pampean region of Argentina.
 Area of study: Plantations were established on non-agricultural land, southeast of the province of Buenos Aires.
 Material and methods: Fourteen sites were selected of Pinus radiata plantations, 9-, 13-, 15-, 19- and 21-years-old, in a first forest rotation. Forty-two trees were destructively sampled, allometric functions were set and biomass was estimated for the different compartments (needles, branches, stem). Root biomass was estimated from equations adjusted by the sampling of twenty-four trees. At 4 sites, C-stock was determined in the tree component, in the forest floor and understory, and soil organic carbon (SOC) was determined to a 50 cm depth.
 Main results: C-stock in the tree component increased with stand age, whereas SOC and C-stock in the forest floor and understory were not related to stand age. The system-level C-stock was 273.1, 263.7, 269.7 and 324.1 Mg ha-1 for the 9-, 13-, 19- and 21-year-old stands. On average, 69% of the total system-level C-stock was in the soil, while 28% was in the tree biomass and 3% was in the forest floor and understory.
 Research highlights: The forestry component contributed to C sequestration with no changes in SOC-stocks reserves for the age range studied.

Influence of tree species richness and identity on saprophagous macroarthropod abundance and species richness in some European forest types

Impacts of tree diversity on forest soil fauna remain poorly known. Two groups of functionally similar invertebrates, millipedes (Diplopoda) and woodlice (Isopoda, Oniscidea), were sampled at 61 forest plots in four European countries (Finland, Poland, Romania, Italy) in order to (1) compare the abundance and species richness of these saprophagous macroarthropods in monospecific and mixed, three-species forest stands, and (2) determine whether the influence of tree species richness depends or not on tree identity. The results showed that, in boreal forests of Finland, regional conditions (temperature, soil) proved to be very unfavourable for millipedes and woodlice, which prevented further comparisons. In the other three regions, tree species richness had no consistent effect on macroarthropod abundance but there was a clear trend towards a higher macroarthropod species richness in mixed stands compared to monospecific stands. This resulted mainly from a significantly positive response of millipedes to tree mixtures in hemiboreal forests of Poland and mountainous forests of Romania, and from a slightly positive response of woodlice in thermophilous forests of Italy. However, not all tree mixtures were equally favourable for saprophagous macroarthropods. An examination of tree identity in mixed stands showed that mixtures including hornbeam and conifers in Poland and those including beech and spruce in Romania had significantly higher macroarthropod species richness than the other mixed stands. Moreover, macroarthropod species richness was higher in these broadleaf-conifer mixtures than in monospecific stands of either component tree species, which supports the hypothesis of a greater diversity of resources for macroarthropods in these mixed stands. This hypothesis was not supported in Italy, where macroarthropod species richness was highest in monospecific chestnut stands. The positive influence of conifer presence on the species richness of saprophagous macroarthropods in Eastern European forests contrasts with results of previous studies, which calls for further research to explain those differences.

Diversity of aquatic plants in the Rote Dead Sea area, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, based on rbcL marker

Abstract. Lonthor DW, Miftahudin, Kayat, Julzarika A, Subehi L, Iswandono E, Dima AOM, Dianto A, Setiawan F, Nugraha MFI. 2023. Diversity of aquatic plants in the Rote Dead Sea area, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, based on rbcL marker. Biodiversitas 24: 810-818. The Rote Dead Sea area in Rote Islands has two freshwater and 24 saltwater lakes. The saltwater lakes have salinity levels varied between 0-100 ppt. Every lake has specific aquatic plant species. Species identification through morphological analysis only has its limitations; therefore, DNA barcoding is a preference due to an effective, accurate, and faster method for species identification. In this study, we used the rbcL marker to identify and analyze the diversity of the aquatic plant species in lakes Ledulu, Oenduy, Oemasapoka, Oesotimori, and Landu Leko. Plants samples' DNA was amplified using rbcL primers, and the amplicons were sequenced. Species identification was based on morphological study and the rbcL sequence database. Diversity analyses were performed based on pairwise genetic distances, analysis of molecular variance, and genetic relationships based on the Kimura 2 parameter. The results showed that all 20 aquatic plants were correctly identified, and high genetic diversity was discovered. AMOVA analysis showed that genetic variations within the population were higher than among the population. All plant species were grouped into four groups based on the phylogenetic tree and fractional component analyses. The species belonging to the certain family were grouped in the same clade and the closely related plant families. The rbcL marker can be used to discriminate aquatic plant species and analyze their genetic diversity and relationships.

Machine learning-assisted internal standard calibration label-free SERS strategy for colon cancer detection.

Liquid biopsies have significance for early colon cancer screening and improving patient survival. Recently, several researchers have applied surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for the label-free and non-invasive detection of serum. Most of these studies performed the assay using a mixture of noble metal nanoparticles (NMNPs) with serum. However, SERS analysis of serum remains a challenge in terms of reproducibility and stability, as NMNPs tend to aggregate when mixed with serum, resulting in a non-uniform distribution of hot spots. Here, we report on the non-invasive identification of colon cancer (CC) using an internal standard (IS)-calibrated label-free serum SERS assay in combination with machine learning. Serum SERS spectra of 50 CC patients and 50 health volunteers have been obtained using silver nanoparticle (Ag NP) colloid and mercaptopropionic acid-modified Ag NPs (Ag NPs-MPA) as the SERS substrates. Decision tree (DT), random forest (RF), and principal component and linear discriminant analysis (PCA-LDA) algorithms were utilized to establish the diagnosis model for SERS spectra data classifying. The results show that the RF model provides a high diagnostic accuracy compared to PCA-LDA. Following calibration with IS molecules, high diagnostic accuracy of over 90% and 100% specificity can be achieved with DT, RF, and PCA-LDA algorithms to differentiate between cancer and normal groups. The results from this exploratory work demonstrate that serum SERS detection combined with multivariate statistical methods and IS calibration has great potential for the non-invasive and label-free detection of CC.

Allocation Patterns and Temporal Dynamics of Chinese Fir Biomass in Hunan Province, China

How trees allocate their biomass among different components has important implications for their survival and growth and ecosystem carbon cycling. Data on the distribution pattern and dynamics of tree biomass are essential for fully exploiting forest carbon sequestration potential and achieving the goal of carbon neutralization. However, there has not been enough research to-date on tree biomass spatial allocation and temporal dynamics in different site qualities at specific tree species scales. This study aimed to evaluate the biomass allocation patterns within tree components of Chinese fir and to examine how they are affected by tree age and site quality. A total of 87 trees were destructively sampled and measured for stem, branch, leaf, bark and root biomass. The biomass proportion difference of tree components in different age stages (8-40 years) was analysed, and the influence process of tree age and site quality on biomass allocation was examined. Our results indicate that the biomass allocation varied with tree age and was also affected by site quality. Stem biomass accounted for the largest proportion of total tree biomass, followed by leaf, root, branch and bark biomass in young forests, and it was followed by root, bark, branch and leaf biomass in other age groups. The biomass proportion of each component all nonlinearly changed with tree age. The proportion of stem biomass increased with increasing tree age, and the biomass proportion of branches and leaves decreased with increasing tree age. The proportion of root biomass first increased and then decreased with tree age, while the bark biomass proportion first decreased and then increased with increasing tree age. Site quality had a positive effect on the biomass proportion of stems but a negative effect on the biomass proportion of branches and bark. The interaction of tree age and site quality also had a significant effect on the proportion of stem biomass as well as root biomass. Therefore, to obtain accurate estimates of Chinese fir forest biomass and carbon stocks, age-specific changes and the influence of site conditions on it need to be considered.

School greenspace is associated with enhanced benefits of academic interventions on annual reading improvement for children of color in California

The restorative benefits of nature on children's cognition suggest the potential for nature exposure to further enhance the impacts of instruction on academic achievement. However, prior research has focused primarily on examining main effects of greenspace on academic performance, and have seldom examined interactions (i.e., moderation) between greenspace and other school variables on academic performance. We examined the statistical interaction of school greenspace (based on 1 m by 1 m land-use classification) and a standard literacy enrichment program on reading improvement over a one-year period for a large sample of ethnic minority (95%) elementary school children (n = 6080, k-6th grade, estimated mean age = 7.9 years) attending predominantly low-income schools (n = 85) throughout the state of California. Our analyses employed multi-level modeling to account for random effects associated with school and neighborhood environments, and incorporated extensive individual, school, and community level covariates. Results from the hypothesized interaction effects demonstrate school greenspace to accentuate the positive association between literacy interventions and improved test scores. Moreover, specific components of greenspace, namely herbaceous and tree cover each enhanced the effect of academic instruction on annual reading improvement. However, no direct association between greenspace cover and academic improvement was found. In addition to several methodological strengths, this study is one of the first to show the interaction between nature and school instruction affecting academic learning.

Variation in the Basic Density of the Tree Components of Gray Alder and Common Alder

Species-specific basic density (BD) data are necessary to improve the indirect methods of biomass determination. The density of tree components (e.g., bark, branches, roots) is studied much less than that of stem wood. Nevertheless, ignoring the specific BD values of these components in biomass calculations can lead to errors. The study aims to investigate BD variation of aboveground and belowground tree components by studying a total of 162 gray alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench) and common alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) trees. From them, 55 stumps were excavated to determine the BD of the belowground components. Our findings reveal that the volume-weighted BD of the stem (wood and bark) and the branch density of common alder are higher compared to gray alder. Both species have similar bark density, while the BD of belowground components is higher for gray alder. The stem wood density of both species increases upward from the stump to the top. Compared to gray alders, the stems of common alders have more distinct radial within-stem density variation. According to our results, the application of default Alnus spp. wood density values recommended in the IPCC guidelines for the calculation of total biomass and carbon stock is likely causing overestimation. The BD values obtained in our study on alders’ biomass components will allow for more accurate appraisals of total biomass and carbon stock for gray and common alder forests.

Drought then wildfire reveals a compound disturbance in a resprouting forest.

The frequency and intensity of forest disturbances, such as drought and fire, are increasing globally, with an increased likelihood of multiple disturbance events occurring in short succession. Disturbances layered over one another may influence the likelihood or intensity of subsequent events (a linked disturbance) or impact response and recovery trajectories (a compound disturbance), with substantial implications for ecological spatiotemporal vulnerability. This study evaluates evidence for disturbance interactions of drought followed by wildfire in a resprouting eucalypt-dominated forest (the Northern Jarrah Forest) in southwestern Australia. Sites were stratified by drought (high, low), from previous modeling and ground validation, and fire severity (high, moderate, unburnt), via remote sensing using the relative difference normalized burn ratio (RdNBR). Evidence of a linked disturbance was assessed via fine fuel consumption and fire severity. Compound disturbance effects were quantified at stand scale (canopy height, quadratic mean diameter, stem density) and stem scale (mortality). There was no evidence of prior drought influencing fine fuel consumption or fire severity and, hence, no evidence of a linked disturbance. However, compound disturbance effects were evident; stands previously affected by drought experienced smaller shifts in canopy height, quadratic mean diameter, and stem density than stands without prior drought impact. At the stem scale, size and fire severity were the strongest determinants of stem survival. Proportional resprouting height was greater in high drought sites than in low drought sites (p < 0.01), meaning, structurally, the low drought stands decreased in height more than the high drought stands. Thus, a legacy of the drought was evident after the wildfire. Although these resprouting eucalypt forests have been regarded as particularly resilient, this study illustrates how multiple disturbances can overwhelm the larger tree component and promote an abundance of smaller stems. We suggest that this is early evidence of a structural destabilization of these forests under a more fire-prone, hotter, and drier future climate.

Escape from Parsimony of a Double-Cut-and-Join Genome Evolution Process.

We analyze models of genome evolution based on both restricted and unrestricted double-cut-and-join (DCJ) operations. Not only do our models allow different types of operations generated by DCJs (including reversals, translocations, transpositions, fissions, and fusions) to take different weights during the course of evolution, but they also let these weights fluctuate over time. We compare the number of operations along the evolutionary trajectory with the DCJ distance of the genome from its ancestor at each step, and determine at what point they diverge: the process escapes from parsimony. Adapting the method developed by Berestycki and Durrett, we approximate the number of cycles in the breakpoint graph of a random genome at time t and its ancestral genome by the number of tree components in a random graph (not necessarily an Erdös-Rényi one) constructed from the model of evolution. In both models, the process on a genome of size n is bound to its parsimonious estimate up to steps.

Prerequisites for the ecologization of recreational and tourist activities in Ukraine

The article considers the main steps of further greening of recreational and tourist activities in Ukraine and proposes models of greening of the enterprise’s activities. The world experience of forming the ecological and economic foundations of the genesis of eco-tourism in the recreation areas of the countries has been analyzed and summarized. The international ecotourism certification program « Green Globe 21 » and its sphere of influence, as well as the international environmental program « Green Key » in terms of the use of natural resources and natural materials, were investigated. A survey of hotel guests was conducted regarding the importance to them of activities related to the minimization of resource consumption, and the importance of criteria for the ecological use of hotel resources was determined. A profile map of consumer satisfaction with environmental services was created, which shows the advantages and disadvantages of hotel services after evaluating the various components of the satisfaction tree and highlights the main ways of balanced functioning of eco-tourism in the recreational areas of Ukraine identified..

Population whole-genome resequencing reveals the phylogenetic relationships and population structure of four Hunan typical tea landraces

Hunan located at the evolutionary transitional zone edge of the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau, tea germplasms are abundant. At present, although morphological, enzymological and molecular markers have been used to study the genetic relationship of these tea germplasms. However, due to the complexity of the genetic background of tea germplasm resources, the evolution history and taxonomy of Hunan tea germplasm is still unclear. In this study, four Hunan tea landraces from the evolutionary transitional zone were collected, including 9 'Chengbu Dongcha' (CBDC), 8 'Jianghua Kucha' (JHKC), 11 'Rucheng Baimao' (RCBM) and 8 'Anhua Yuntai' (AHYT). We used whole-genome re-sequencing to identify genetic variation, phylogenetic placement, and population structure among the four tea landraces and then scanned the genome for regions related to population potential selective. Across the samples, we identified an average of 1.38 million (M) SNPs and 6.82 × 10³ INDELs. Based on the high-quality SNPs, we performed neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree, population structure, and principal component analysis, all of which supported that the 36 tea germplasms could been divided into two groups, CBDC and AHYT were clustered into a group, and RCBM and JHKC were clustered into another group. With CBDC, JHKC, and RCBM as control, 407, 380, and 147 selected genes were identified in AHYT, respectively, were in the top 5% of F_ST and Log₂^Ratioθπ scores. The identified genes are mainly involved in stress tolerance, biosynthesis of important secondary metabolites, adaptability, and yield. These results will be helpful in the classification of tea germplasms and investigating selection–related genes.

DINÂMICA ESPAÇO-TEMPORAL DE ESPÉCIES ARBÓREAS ENDÊMICAS EM FLORESTA SECUNDÁRIA NO DOMÍNIO DA MATA ATLÂNTICA, NO BRASIL

ABSTRACT Understanding the dynamics of endemic tree component species based on natural regeneration (NR) and adult trees (AT) is essential for formulating conservation strategies for protecting these species. The objective of the present study was to identify endemic species in a preserved area of secondary forest in the Atlantic Forest domain in Brazil and to evaluate their dynamics over 24 years. Based on inventories carried out from 1992 to 2016 of the NR (diameter at breast height - dbh ≤ 5 cm) and of the AT (dbh ≥ 5 cm) in ten sites with different characteristics (physiographic, edaphic, and successional), it was possible to, initially, identify 58 species classified as endemic to Brazil (EBR) and/or those exclusive to the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (EAF), among the 226 species in the entire survey. Subsequently, this classification was reassessed based on updated information on its occurrence, and only 38 of these species were maintained as endemic to Brazil and/or to the Atlantic Forest. Some species were recorded in the AT and NR strata, in different sites, throughout the study period, while others occurred in only one level (AT or NR), some with low abundance. Among these endemic species, eight are included in the endangered species lists, and 15 can be classified as rare, as there was only one individual in the survey. Considering the two arboreal strata it was observed that some species were abundant in the forest in all inventories and several sites, while others went throughout the study period with few individuals and, in some cases, disappeared due to mortality. These results contribute to understanding the factors that can affect the local abundance of endemic species over time, allowing the definition of conservation actions for protecting these vulnerable species, thus avoiding their extinction.

Above-ground biomass allocation and potential carbon sink of black pine – a case study from southern Poland

Biomass allocation is a key factor for understanding the forest carbon balance and reflects plants’ ecological strategies in different environmental conditions. Allocation patterns and biomass models outside of the native range of black pine have not been analyzed in the context of the observed climate changes. The study's goals were to develop biomass equations for mature black pine from southern Poland and assess biomass and carbon allocation patterns and the potential of trees of different social statuses for carbon sequestration. A total of 129 felled black pine trees were measured, among which 14 were destructively sampled to determine biomass and carbon content in tree components. The developed set of biomass equations provided allocation patterns and accumulation of trees of different social statuses. Biomass and carbon allocation patterns were different but related to tree social status. The introduction of diameter at crown base significantly improved the accuracy of the developed models. The analyzed trees allocated relatively more in stem than in crown in comparison with that observed in other studies. Biomass and carbon allocation patterns of the analyzed black pines differ from those of the native range. They should be considered in biomass modeling with factors influencing social status structure.

The potential impact of future climate change on the production of a major food and cash crop in tropical (sub)montane homegardens

Tropical agroforestry systems support the wellbeing of many smallholder farmers. These systems provide smallholders with crops for consumption and income through their ecological interactions between their tree, soil, and crop components. These interactions, however, could be vulnerable to changes in climate conditions; yet a reliable understanding of how this could happen is not well documented. The aim of this study is to understand how tree-soil-crop interactions and crop yield are affected by changes in climate conditions, which has implications for recognising how these systems could be affected by climate change. We used a space-for-time climate analogue approach, in conjunction with structural equation modelling, to empirically examine how warmer and drier climate conditions affects tree-soil-crop interactions and banana yield in Mt. Kilimanjaro's homegarden agroforest. Overall, the change in climate conditions negatively affected ecological interactions in the homegardens by destabilizing soil nutrient cycles. Banana yield, however, was mainly directly influenced by the climate. Banana yields could initially benefit from the warmer climate before later declining under water stress. Our findings imply that under increasingly warmer and drier climate conditions, homegarden agroforestry may not be a robust long-term farming practice which can protect smallholder's wellbeing unless effective irrigation measures are implemented.

Estimation of Aboveground Biomass in Agroforestry Systems over Three Climatic Regions in West Africa Using Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, ALOS, and GEDI Data.

Agroforestry systems (AFS) offer viable solutions for climate change because of the aboveground biomass (AGB) that is maintained by the tree component. Therefore, spatially explicit estimation of their AGB is crucial for reporting emission reduction efforts, which can be enabled using remote sensing (RS) data and methods. However, multiple factors including the spatial distributions within the AFS, their structure, their composition, and their variable extents hinder an accurate RS-assisted estimation of the AGB across AFS. The aim of this study is to (i) evaluate the potential of spaceborne optical, SAR and LiDAR data for AGB estimations in AFS and (ii) estimate the AGB of different AFS in various climatic regions. The study was carried out in three climatic regions covering Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso. Two AGB reference data sources were assessed: (i) AGB estimations derived from field measurements using allometric equations and (ii) AGB predictions from the GEDI level 4A (L4A) product. Vegetation indices and texture parameters were generated from optical (Sentinel-2) and SAR data (Sentinel-1 and ALOS-2) respectively and were used as predictors. Machine learning regression models were trained and evaluated by means of the coefficient of determination (R2) and the RMSE. It was found that the prediction error was reduced by 31.2% after the stratification based on the climatic conditions. For the AGB prediction, the combination of random forest algorithm and Sentinel-1 and -2 data returned the best score. The GEDI L4A product was applicable only in the Guineo-Congolian region, but the prediction error was approx. nine times higher than the ground truth. Moreover, the AGB level varied across AFS including cocoa (7.51 ± 0.6 Mg ha-1) and rubber (7.33 ± 0.33 Mg ha-1) in the Guineo-Congolian region, cashew (13.78 ± 0.98 Mg ha-1) and mango (12.82 ± 0.65 Mg ha-1) in the Guinean region. The AFS farms in the Sudanian region showed the highest AGB level (6.59 to 82.11 Mg ha-1). AGB in an AFS was mainly determined by the diameter (R2 = 0.45), the height (R2 = 0.13) and the tree density (R2 = 0.10). Nevertheless, RS-based estimation of AGB remain challenging because of the spectral similarities between AFS. Therefore, spatial assessment of the prediction uncertainties should complement AGB maps in AFS.

Agroforestry Assisted Natural Farming in India: Challenges and Implications for Diversification and Restoration of Agroecosystem

The Government of India is promoting natural farming (NF) which is evolved from our ancient heritage and traditional cultivation practices. Though NF has many advantages, it is facing several challenges like low yield in initial years, expecting high outputs from low cost of cultivation, lack of local cultivars and livestock, less availability of tree based diverse inputs, dependency on purchase or exchange inputs from other farm hold and dispute in farming type and crop composition. On these backdrops, sustainable and/or resilient agroforestry (AF) systems can be synergized by using principles and practices of AF with NF. This AF assisted NF hybrid model is helpful in diversification and restoration of agroecosystem. AF includes at least one livestock components along with perennial trees and agricultural crops. Trees and livestock based NF is the foremost nature based solution (NBS) for climate change mitigation, food security and land degradation neutrality. In NF, to prepare various plant protection formulations neem, pongamia and various perennial species byproducts are essential which can be substituted by tree components in AF. It also provides continues supply of inputs for jeevamrut and beejamrut preparations along with continuous biomass mulching through nitrogen fixing trees. In addition, AF assisted NF practices reduce methane emission from ruminating livestock by reducing heat stress and increasing the feed quality. Some studies on NF have indicated that yield levels were drastically reduced in several cropping systems. Instead of integrating tree and animal components, these studies focused solely on the multi-location evaluation of various cropping systems. Therefore, it would be premature to recommend its wide-spread adaption or adoption prior to scientific validation of this NF. This review provides detail information and implications of AF assistance in NF and recommends preferentially, climate resilient, economical, native and naturalized trees and livestock incorporation, along with amalgamation of traditional and improved AF practices.