Treaty Research Articles

Sources of Media Rights in Afghanistan: A Review

The Media Law was established to preserve social order, unity, and continuity, to defend truth and justice to protect the rights of the disadvantaged in the media sphere. The Media Law categorizes the functions of all media and reporters within a specific framework and takes steps to maintain regularity in media works. Today, media plays a significant role in leadership and control, and therefore, its social responsibility is constantly expanding. In every country, for the stability and proper functioning of any activity, it is necessary to establish rules, and since media work is a social activity, Media Law is essential for the development and progress of media work and activities. The Afghan Public Media Law was drafted and approved taking into account both domestic and international sources. The Afghan Public Media Law was drafted and approved in light of domestic sources (law, custom, Islamic law, judicial precedent) and external sources (the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Declaration of Human Rights of Islamic Countries, and international agreements) to ensure the proper functioning of the media.

The Scrutiny of States’ Climate Change Action under WTO Law and International Investment Agreements

Abstract The urgency of the fight against climate change is significantly shaping also international economic law. It is herein investigated how international climate change treaties, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) of 9 May 1992 and the Paris Agreement of 12 December 2015 may be successfully integrated with the World Trade Organization (WTO) covered agreements and international investment agreements (IIAs). While the international trade and investment regimes were originally designed primarily for the vindication of economic concerns, they can already provide sufficient legal avenues for the affirmation of States’ climate commitments and efforts, such as the reliance on general exceptions applicable to environmental matters. In particular, trade and investment treaties must be interpreted pursuant to systemic integration as required by Article 31(3)(c) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT). As a result, multilateral treaties addressing climate change do constitute a hermeneutic basis against which adjudicators may assess the respect or the breach of economic and commercial treaties under international law. Within this framework, unilateral climate change action by States (or by the European Union) that furthers the “ambition cycle” set forth by the Paris Agreement may withstand the scrutiny of the WTO Dispute Settlement System (DSS) and international investment tribunals but for a finding of discriminatory, arbitrary, unreasonable, selective or protectionist application.

Pyrolysis and beyond: Sustainable valorization of plastic waste

The recycling of plastics through pyrolysis has garnered significant attention as a waste management approach, particularly given upcoming regulations and the urgent need for absolute sustainability. This review paper evaluates pyrolysis's technological, environmental, and regulatory aspects, emphasizing the need to prioritize environmental impact over purely economic considerations. While it is recognized that financial challenges have constrained many past attempts at scaling pyrolysis systems, this paper argues that a shift in focus toward sustainability criteria is essential for the technology's long-term viability. Prioritizing environmental outcomes is critical given the pressing issues like plastic pollution, which presents significant threats to ecosystems and human health. A comprehensive assessment of environmental impacts is vital for technologies intended for large-scale deployment, ensuring that they align with global sustainability goals. This perspective is especially pertinent in light of the current United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) global plastic pollution treaty negotiations, where there is a contentious debate over the true circularity of chemical recycling. Environmentalists and several nations advocate for significant reductions in plastic production and bans on single-use plastics. At the same time, oil-producing countries and petrochemical companies push for circularity in the plastic economy. The paper explores the promise and limitations of pyrolysis technology for valorizing plastic wastes, comparing its efficacy with other waste management methods. Biomass pyrolysis is discussed due to its significant synergies with plastic pyrolysis and its potential for carbon sequestration through biochar. However, the discussion on biomass pyrolysis is limited in scope, with the paper's primary focus on waste plastic pyrolysis. The paper discusses the challenges and opportunities in utilizing pyrolysis for waste plastics, which are considered along with regulatory and geopolitical aspects. Environmental impacts, including life cycle analysis and planetary boundary considerations, are examined to understand why pyrolysis has yet to achieve widespread adoption. A case study on Plastic Energy, SABIC, and Unilever highlights current industry status, technological advancements, and information gaps. Finally, a comprehensive framework is proposed to achieve net-zero emissions, improve air quality, and ensure absolute environmental sustainability in plastic recycling. Recommendations are provided for the plastic industry and research institutions to support the transition towards sustainable waste management practices.

European foreign investment policy towards China: Is there an EU net contribution?

ABSTRACT The paper discusses the regulatory influence of the EU on the global investment regime, by focusing on how its regulatory power is represented in its investment treaty negotiations. It assesses the contribution of EU integration in this area by analysing whether its regulatory power over China is greater than that of each of its Member States cumulatively in investment agreement negotiations. Using text-as-data methodology, it concludes that the Comprehensive Agreement on Investment enters into a symbiotic relationship with the pre-existing BIT framework, falling short on substantive provisions while overall advancing the EU's position in soft areas such as market access, SOE regulation or transparency. Additional variables which are accounted for are the possible strengths and limitations of the EU's regulatory power, normative differences, the temporal gap, or China's own domestic and foreign trade policy. In the context of strategic autonomy, the CAI illustrates the shortcomings and advantages of EU regulatory power. Its findings are significant to understand the regulatory influence that the EU has on the governance of the investment regime, and the evolution of its regulatory capacity on investment in international relations, especially vis-à-vis major players.

Communication in Health Diplomacy

Health is increasingly becoming a critical factor in countries' trade agreements, development strategies, security, and foreign policy. Therefore, diplomacy plays a vital role in health. Health threats are known to jeopardize a country's security and stability. For centuries, countries have implemented measures like quarantine to stop diseases at their borders, recognizing the central importance of health security for national security. The spread and similarity of diseases across borders mean that solving these health issues can only be achieved through global negotiations and agreements. Today, growing health issues require not only technical equipment but also political negotiations, solutions, and various actors. Successful health diplomacy is based on political, diplomatic experience, and practice, which must be combined with public health knowledge and evidence-based medicine. Global health requires a governance process that involves states, civil society organizations, international organizations, and multinational corporations. Health Diplomacy is an interaction method selected for securing the right to health in vulnerable communities, improving health systems, fostering collaboration between public health and political stakeholders, and resolving conflicts. Health diplomacy contributes to communication. It can help overcome barriers, act as a common catalyst for many initiatives, and respond, coordinate, improve access, and create an atmosphere for participation by aligning with regional cultures and helping to build public trust. Having secure and prosperous populations is in the long-term interest of every country, and diplomatic communication is essential to achieve these goals. For international agreements related to health and foreign policy to work, both foreign policy practitioners and global health advocates must engage more actively. In health diplomacy, communication is not only a tool for interstate negotiations but also for raising awareness among the public and relevant stakeholders about global health issues. Effectively conveying any effort to both domestic and international audiences is as important as the work itself. Successful health diplomacy relies on successful communication, and successful communication relies on sharing accurate information.

The Basmati rice war between India and Pakistan

The current study highlights the challenges for GI protection of trans-border products, in Basmati rice. Various international treaties, e.g., Lisbon Agreement, Paris convention, and TRIPS Agreement describe partly the protection of geographical indications (GIs) or appellations of origin. Both India and Pakistan are TRIPS member countries and claim Basmati rice as their GI and have tagged Basmati as GI in their respective territories. Europe is an expanding market for Basmati, and EU is implementing import regulations on food products based on GI reputation for high quality products. India has sought GI protection of Basmati rice in EU followed by staunch opposition by Pakistan. Current study will briefly highlight the recent developments of this GI dispute on Basmati rice between India and Pakistan in EU,New Zealand and Australia.

Enhancing Tax Treaty Negotiations through the Lens of Representation

This article explores how the UN Manual and Toolkit’s guidance on tax treaty negotiations can be improved by prioritizing residents’ representation. It emphasizes the need for skilled negotiators, transparent processes and public participation to ensure fair, accountable and mutually beneficial outcomes in international tax treaties.

The role of international cooperation in improving road traffic safety

The article is devoted to a detailed analysis of the impact of international cooperation on improving road traffic safety in Ukraine. The author emphasizes that every year, approximately 1.3 million people die worldwide as a result of road traffic accidents, with tens of millions more suffering injuries of varying severity. This makes the issue one of the most pressing on the international agenda. In this regard, international cooperation in the field of road traffic safety is of paramount importance. One of the main topics of the article is the analysis of international agreements, such as the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, which is a key document in regulating road traffic at the international level. The Convention establishes uniform standards for the participating countries, promoting the unification of traffic rules, which is especially important in the context of the globalization of transport systems. The article examines how Ukraine is gradually implementing the provisions of this Convention into its national legislation, which is an important step toward harmonization with international standards. The article also explores global initiatives such as «Vision Zero,» which aims to achieve zero road deaths. This initiative originated in Sweden and has spread to many countries in Europe and around the world. The article analyzes successful cases of this initiative’s implementation in EU countries, which have significantly reduced road mortality rates. Ukraine is also striving to adapt these standards, which could become a key factor in reducing road accidents on its roads. The research methodology outlined in the article is based on an in-depth analysis of legal acts, a comparative study of international and national road safety standards, and a review of successful international practices in this field. This approach allows for a comprehensive assessment of the role of international cooperation in improving national road traffic safety policies. In conclusion, the author emphasizes that international cooperation not only contributes to improving infrastructure and regulatory frameworks but also stimulates the further development of a road safety culture. For Ukraine, it is crucial to continue cooperation with international organizations and adapt global standards to its conditions. This will not only improve road traffic safety but also reduce the accident rate on its roads.

Rising protectionism and foreign direct investment

AbstractThis paper investigates the impact of the changing international investment regime on foreign direct investment (FDI). Since the late 2000s, hundreds of international investment agreements (IIAs) have been renegotiated or terminated. We study the impact of these shifts in the global investment regime using a novel FDI dataset based on transaction-level investment data and detailed information on IIA provisions. Relying on a stand-alone partial equilibrium modeling framework, we hypothesize that rising protectionism in IIAs increased investment frictions and harmed FDI. We then use a parsimonious three-way gravity framework to test the hypothesis. The empirical evidence shows that reformed and newly enforced IIAs have no impact on FDI flows. Decreasing investment openness in recently implemented IIAs is the driving mechanism behind these findings. We also show that the effects of IIA termination differ by FDI type, being more pronounced for brownfield than greenfield FDI and larger for horizontal than vertical FDI. Lastly, we show significant treatment heterogeneity across industries, with capital-intensive sectors benefiting more from IIAs than labor-intensive ones. Our findings highlight the need to reconsider the benefits and costs of IIAs under an increasingly protective international investment regime.

Extractive separations: A Polanyian note on the international investment treaty regime

This paper examines the relationship between extractive industries and the In-ternational Investment Treaty Regime. This regime, I argue, works to separate extrac-tive investments from the social conditions that make those investments and extractions possible. Examining 3 recent cases—Bear Creek, Von Pezold and Rockhopper, I argue that international investment arbitration invokes novel and deeper separations. More-over, the kinds of separations now enabled in the investment treaty regime take diverse form. To explore this diversity, this paper foregrounds 3 techniques of separation made visible in these 3 cases including techniques of displacement, differentiation and ab-straction. This, in turn, signals a broader contradiction in international investment ar-bitration— a form of practice now deeply contested by those keen to rethread investment governance to social context but shaped by decisions that sever investments from those contexts in ever abstract ways. Read in Polanyian terms, I argue there is a tension be-tween investments deeply embedded in social contexts but increasingly disembedded as abstracted legal and financial objects.

Energy Solutions for Decarbonization of Industrial Heat Processes

The global rise in population and advancement in civilization have led to a substantial increase in energy demand, particularly in the industrial sector. This sector accounts for a considerable proportion of total energy consumption, with approximately three-quarters of its energy consumption being used for heat processes. To meet the Paris Agreement goals, countries are aligning policies with international agreements, and companies are setting net-zero targets. Upstream emissions of the Scope 3 category refer to activities in the company’s supply chain, being crucial for achieving its net-zero ambitions. This study analyzes heating solutions for the supply chain of certain globally operating companies, contributing to their 2030 carbon-neutral ambition. The objective is to identify current and emerging heating solutions from carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) impact, economic, and technical perspectives, considering regional aspects. The methodology includes qualitative and quantitative surveys to identify heating solutions and gather regional CO2e emission factors and energy prices. Calculations estimate the CO2e emissions and energy costs for each technology or fuel, considering each solution’s efficiency. The study focuses on Europe, the United States, Brazil, China, and Saudi Arabia, regions or countries representative of companies’ global supply chain setups. Results indicate that heat pumps are the optimal solution for low temperatures, while biomass is the second most prevalent solution, except in Saudi Arabia where natural gas is more feasible. For medium and high temperatures, natural gas is viable in the short term for Saudi Arabia and China, while biomass and electrification are beneficial for other regions. The proportion of electricity in the energy mix is expected to increase, but achieving decarbonization targets requires cleaner energy mixes or competitive Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) projects. Brazil, with its high proportion of renewable energy sources, offers favorable conditions for using green electricity to reduce emissions. The utilization of biomethane is promising if costs and incentives align with those in the EU. Although not the objective of this study, a comprehensive analysis of CAPEX and lifecycle costs associated with equipment is necessary when migrating technologies. Policies and economic incentives can also make these solutions more or less favorable.

Assessment of International Legal Protections for Displaced Children in Armed Conflicts

The protection of displaced children in the armed conflicts is an urgent and critical issue that demands comprehensive legal assessment and intervention. Armed conflicts often result in the displacement of vulnerable populations, with children being among the most affected. These children face heightened risks, including violence, exploitation, and the loss of family ties, which significantly impacts their physical and psychological well-being. International legal frameworks, including conventions and treaties, aim to safeguard the rights of children in such dire circumstances. However, the effectiveness of these protections often varies in practice, particularly in conflict zones where enforcement mechanisms are weak or absent.

COMBATANT IMMUNITY AND THE RUSSIAN-UKRAINIAN WAR: REOPENING THE DEBATE ON A LONGSTANDING DOCTRINE

Background: Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has resulted in the largest conflict in Europe since the Second World War, with estimates suggesting that hundreds of thousands of Russian soldiers are implementing the will of the aggressor state. It has long been believed that combatants are immune from criminal prosecution for their actions during hostilities, including the killing of military personnel defending the victim state unless they violate the laws of war. However, this immunity has naturally generated criticism in the Ukrainian legal community. In this article, the authors analyse the critical arguments made by opponents of combatant immunity and seek to clarify the legal and ethical grounds of the controversial doctrine. Furthermore, the well-known debate on the significance of citizenship (nationality) for recognising combatant or prisoner of war status and the liability of defectors is revisited from a new perspective. Methods: The article is based on an analysis of IHL sources, commentaries, state practices, precedents and scientific views on combatant immunity. Additionally, the article examines the practices of law enforcement agencies in Ukraine and the perspectives of Ukrainian criminal law scholars. General scientific methods of cognition (induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis), as well as historical, empirical and systemic-structural methods, are used. The article is structured into three parts. The initial section provides a comprehensive overview of the status of a combatant and their associated privileges within the context of international humanitarian law (IHL), with a particular focus on the ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine. The second section delves into the debate surrounding Ukraine's obligation to respect the immunity of the combatant of the aggressor state and offers the authors' conclusions on this matter. The third section addresses the liability of defectors, focusing on the implications of citizenship (nationality) for combatants and prisoners of war (POW). Results and conclusions: Several Ukrainian scholars have expressed their unreserved disagreement with Ukraine's application of the doctrine of combatant immunity to Russian soldiers. In the absence of a direct reference to this exceptional privilege in international treaties to which Ukraine is a party and in light of the a priori unlawfulness of aggression, the critical arguments are not without merit. Nevertheless, we conclude that respect for the immunity of a combatant representing the aggressor state is part of Ukraine's international obligations and has a certain justification. Concurrently, the article acknowledges that the legal and ethical grounds for this are not entirely clear. The question of whether defectors should be recognised as combatants and/or prisoners of war is similarly unclear. Nevertheless, we are convinced that regardless of the answer to this question, the criminal prosecution of defectors for high treason cannot be considered a violation of the immunity of a combatant.

The development of international civil liability legal regime for nuclear damage and their inspiration for domestic law-making

As International Atomic Energy Agency has stated in its Handbook on Nuclear Law, “Even in situations for which the highest standard of safety has been achieved, the occurrence of nuclear accidents cannot be completely excluded.” Therefore, the international legal framework for nuclear damage compensation liability has been evolving since the establishment of Nuclear Energy Agency of Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD NEA) and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Over the years, various international treaties have been enacted to address the compensation of nuclear damage and to establish liability regimes for nuclear incidents. To date, these treaties have established a series of legal principles of nuclear damage liability, such as the sole liability principle, the strict liability principle, the financial guarantee principle etc., which have been developing since establishment. This paper offers an overview of the historical development of the principles of these international treaties for nuclear damage liability and thus draws upon both primary and secondary sources, including treaties, official documents, academic literature, and reports by international organizations. Including the legislation study methodology, comparative methodology is also adopted in this paper to analyze the changes and trend of these principles. The paper reveals that the Paris Convention, which was established in 1960, was the first attempt to establish a comprehensive legal regime for nuclear damage liability. Most of the principles of this Convention have been inherited by subsequent international treaties and domestic legislations. With the awareness of protecting public’s rights having been significantly strengthened, the range of compensation has been broader, the matters of immunity from liability for operators of nuclear power plants have been reduced, the limitation of the compensation amount has been higher etc. In conclusion, the international legal regime for nuclear damage liability has been showing a shift from protecting the development of the nuclear industry to a joint protection of both public health and rights and the nuclear industry, which should be paid attention to and deeply learnt by domestic legislators of all states for the establishment and perfection of their domestic legislation in this field.

Cross-border data flow in China: Shifting from restriction to relaxation?

This article examines China's latest development in the governance of cross-border data flow. Under the general framework of Cyber Security Law, Data Security Law, and Personal Data Protection Law, China established its own regime of cross-border data flow. In recent years, contrary to the general international perception that China imposes strict restrictions especially due to national security concerns, China has been de facto relaxing its regulations on cross-border data flow, especially for digital trade. This article suggests three underlying incentives. First, China is in an increasing need to gain economic growth through international trade and investment. Second, China intends to compete in technology development and take the lead in shaping international rules on data governance. Third, China is seeking to adhere to international standards, particularly those prescribed in international free trade agreements. This article further submits that this paradigm shift would have international implications. First, China's practices need to be examined under the domestic regulatory frameworks of international free trade agreements. Second, China's current legislative and judicial practices are multifaceted, taking into account various factors, including international business, national security, and data protection, which may contribute to the further development of international cross-border data flow rules.

Effectively managing area-based management tools: A new toolkit for the conservation of marine mammals

Marine mammals play crucial roles in marine ecosystem function yet are threatened by increasing pressures from anthropogenic activities within marine ecosystems. Area-based Management Tools (ABMT) are key for their conservation and protection, yet their effectiveness is often hindered by lack of resources, technical capacity and political support. Yet, ABMTs are grounded in local, national, regional, and international agreements and policy frameworks including the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF). To support marine managers, the “Marine Mammals Management Toolkit” was developed and is composed of three core components, including the Self-Assessment Tool (SAT), founded on the Protected Area Management Effectiveness (PAME) framework, and is a multiple-choice tool that enables managers to evaluate the effectiveness of management plans regarding marine mammals through the production of a Management Effectiveness Score (MES). The SAT has been utilised across 24 MPAs in 18 countries. Two case studies are provided on its application. The Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS) evaluated their existing management plan, and scored an MES value of 7.8 with the Bermuda Marine Mammal Sanctuary (BMMS) scoring 4.7. The results of the SAT enabled the Bermudian Government to make informed decisions in developing a Marine Spatial Plan for the BMMS, and enables SBNMS to set a baseline to track effectiveness over the life-time of SBNMS and respective management plans; guiding local and national policy, as well as enabling Bermuda and the United States of America to contribute to their international commitments.

THE STATE BORDER DOCUMENTATION POLICY AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION

The international community considers the border policy to be a crucial aspect of the country's security and political strategy. The resolution of the state border issue has been in accordance with agreements, domestic laws, programs, and projects related to Mongolia's international border. Therefore, the Mongolian government developed and approved the document "The basis of the Mongolian government's border policy" in 2002 to establish a legal framework for coordinating state border activities, addressing related issues, and ensuring border protection. This document is based on the provisions of the Constitution, National Security and foreign policy concepts, and aims to evaluate the implementation of laws and international agreements while optimizing the legal environment. The document remains in force since its approval by the National Assembly in 2002. This supporting document outlines an ideological system that upholds the state's independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, and the inviolability of its borders. It also includes mechanisms for ensuring state border security, as well as the goals, objectives, principles, and main directions for its implementation. This document has been crucial in maintaining the continuity of government policy. In an era of increasing complexity in the global and regional security landscape, countries are focusing on safeguarding border security, addressing potential threats and risks, and maintaining national borders and territorial integrity. This underscores the significance of emphasizing unity, shared interests, and collective security over individual national interests and security. From ancient times (Great Mongolia) to the present day, Mongolia has consistently prioritized its border security and has implemented various policies and activities to safeguard the integrity of its borders. There has always been a requirement to create policy documents for border protection and enhance legal capabilities to safeguard the integrity of the state border, as well as to coordinate and oversee national border protection efforts based on societal needs, aims, and objectives. In light of Mongolia's development policy and legal reform, the state military and institutions with special functions are undergoing reform. A series of state policy and legal documents have been updated and approved, establishing a legal framework. Consequently, there is a pressing need to review the government's border policy, which has remained unchanged for two decades.

Prospects of Handling Digital Technology Disputes by Courts of Integration Associations

Objective: to analyze the competence and procedure of case handling by the courts of integration associations, allowing them to resolve disputes related to information technologies, and to identify the prospects of handling of this category of disputes by the courts of integration associations.Methods: the main research methods were analysis, synthesis, and problem-theoretical method.Results: the article identified the main features of the “disputes related to digital technologies” category in relation to resolving disputes involving individuals by the courts of integration associations. It reveals opportunities for some courts of integration associations to resolve disputes related to information technologies. The said opportunities are provided by the courts competence, allowing the appeal of individuals, as well as by the dispute resolution procedure involving experts. By analyzing international treaties and practice of courts of integration associations, the author proves that the changes in the category of “disputes related to digital technologies” are related not only to technologies, but also to information and communication systems. By own judgments, the author reveals the content of disputes related to digital technologies in the courts of integration associations.Scientific novelty: the paper reveals the peculiarities of the category “disputes related to digital technologies” in relation to the courts of integration associations and the prospects of resolving disputes related to information technologies by the courts of integration associations. Practical significance: the conclusions provided in the article can be used to improve the practice of courts of integration associations.

Current issues in the theory and practice of legal regulation policy of Arctic states policy in the Arctic Region

The presented article examines the current problems and directions for development of the legal regulation policy of Arctic Region states policy in the Arctic area, which represents a macro-region of geopolitical, defense, economic, environmental, legal and scientific interests. The purpose of the study is to analyze the main features and problems of the political, legal and economic regime of the Arctic, which are directly influenced by the national interests of the Arctic states, including the Russian Federation. The authors consider an influence of national interests of the Arctic states on legal regime in the Arctic area, and also study the features of policies of these countries in the Arctic zone. Particular attention is paid to policies and strategic interests of the Russian Federation in this region, which determine national and international legal regulation. One of the main problematic issues is to simultaneously ensure compliance with national interests of the Arctic states and mutually beneficial international cooperation between them. The Arctic is a region of strategic interests, but in recent years it has become a region of confrontation and rivalry. There is an unconstructive policy of a number of Arctic states regarding participation and compliance with the interests of the Russian Federation in international institutions and organizations. Reasonable agreements and compromises are needed that take into account the interests of our country, as stated in international agreements, which should ensure the absence of disputes and conflicts in development of the Arctic.

Green Trade Barriers in Global Play: Legal Challenges and Strategic Opportunities for Developing Countries

This paper examines the challenges and strategic responses of developing countries to green trade barriers within the framework of global economic integration. Green trade barriers, primarily non-tariff measures established by developed countries for environmental protection, pose significant challenges to the international market entry of products from developing countries, affecting their economic growth and trade dynamics. This study explores how developing countries can leverage international environmental agreements, ISO 14000 standards, and legal reforms to mitigate these barriers. It emphasizes the importance of enhancing environmental standards, fostering international cooperation, and advocating for transparent legal frameworks to align with global environmental practices. The paper also discusses the role of organizations like APEC and the impact of agreements such as the Environmental Goods Agreement in harmonizing standards and reducing trade disputes. By adopting comprehensive strategies and embracing a shift towards a green economy, developing countries can not only overcome these barriers but also enhance their competitiveness in the global market.