External Costs Of Transport Research Articles

РЕФОРМУВАННЯ І СУСПІЛЬНІ ЕФЕКТИ ПАСАЖИРСЬКИХ ПЕРЕВЕЗЕНЬ ЗАЛІЗНИЧНОЇ ГАЛУЗІ

Transport affects: health and life of the population; state of the atmosphere and the biosphere; rational use of natural and energy resources; ensuring sustainable development of the country. Railway passenger transportation for the society is more efficient than automobile ones at the expense of considerably less to the railway transport. Subsidizing transportations meets the interests of society and the economy, leading to a reduction in external costs (overflow costs) of passenger transportation; Increasing the mobility of the population, contributing to the improvement of the quality of labor resources and the quality of life of the population, gives a lasting macroeconomic effect for the whole country. It is necessary to develop a legislative mechanism for subsidizing passenger transportation by rail, which will guarantee the preservation and development of the passenger railway complex after the elimination of cross subsidization of passenger traffic.

Comparison of External Costs in Multimodal Container Transport Chain

The proposed paper discusses multimodal container transport due to savings in external costs. Relevant data have been analysed by reviewing previous research and published works for making a synthesis of one’s own conclusions. The research findings showed that there is no significant difference in the share of external costs of container transport and transport of other types of cargo in great European seaports as well as in energy consumption of multimodal rail-inland ship container transport and the same transport mode of bulk cargo. Intermodal terminals have also their own external costs. In spite of a double railway operational cost, it is important to include the railway in the intermodal terminal. The inland waterway transport has much higher external costs than sea transport. Multimodal container transport does not necessarily lower external costs. The savings are more common if the location and type of intermodal terminal are selected properly, and the sea transportation is involved in the multimodal transport chain.

Impacts of trade related sustainability strategies on freight transportation: Modelling framework and application for France

The circular and functional economies are being presented in the literature as potential strategies for future sustainable societies. In terms of the consequences for supply chains, they will promote a much more dispersed and diversified, local and network based usage of goods than the current economy, which is comparatively linear, concentrated, long distance oriented and scale economy based. A gap in the literature is the assessment of the effects of these systems on freight transport flows. In our paper, we present a first attempt at estimating this impact using freight transport scenario building and quantitative modelling. In order to translate the main parameters that characterize these systems into factors determining freight transportation volumes, we develop a framework based on a typology of goods categories describing functional and spatial proximity between producers and consumers. In order to simulate changes in the economy, we develop scenarios for the shifting of goods from one category to another and, additionally, include internalization policies that should guide their realization. We calculate the impacts on freight flows using a new interregional transport model for France that includes distribution chains and produces estimates of external costs of transport. Our results show that circular and functional economies could lead to a 2–5% reduction of air pollutant emissions and up to a 14–26% reduction if combined with the internalization of external costs. The scenario with ongoing mass production for differentiated demand is found to lead to a 5% increase of environmental impacts compared to the baseline.

The external costs of private versus public road transport in the Metropolitan Area of Santiago, Chile

We estimate marginal external costs per kilometer for car and bus in the Metropolitan Area of Santiago, Chile, in terms of congestion, road damage, accidents, air pollution and noise. Estimates are provided for both peak and off-peak periods. To carry out our analysis, we collected and integrated the output of several local studies. These estimates should contribute to a better debate on how to manage efficiently motor vehicles externalities by means of both (pigouvian) tax instruments, public transport subsidies and regulation. We also offer a comparison of our results with those reported in the literature.At peak times, marginal external costs per kilometer for petrol cars, diesel cars and buses are estimated at USD 0.51, USD 0.53 and USD 1.80 respectively. When these values are converted to passenger-kilometer, petrol cars, diesel cars and buses impose a marginal external cost of USD 0.41, USD 0.42 and USD 0.04 respectively. At off-peak times, all these values are reduced as congestion decreases significantly. The marginal external cost for petrol cars, diesel cars and buses are USD 0.15, USD 0.16 and USD 0.78 respectively. Differences in marginal external costs per passenger-kilometer between cars and buses shrink as these costs fall to USD 0.12, USD 0.13 and USD 0.05 for petrol car, diesel car and bus respectively.

Exploring the impact of ICT on urban mobility in heterogenic regions

Abstract Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have been widely applied in the monitoring, operation and management of transport services, while they were proven to have a great potential to increase the efficiency in the use of urban transport infrastructure and at the same time reducing negative impacts on the environment. The aim of this paper is to explore the impact of ICTs applications in reducing carbon dioxide emissions and costs in different regions across Europe: a) Bucharest - Ilfov (Romania), b) Centro Region (Portugal) and c) Extremadura (Spain). Through different scenarios we estimate potential emissions savings and damage costs for carbon dioxide. The total emissions in each scenario were calculated using COPERT 4, while the estimation of the total emission costs was based on the updated values of damage costs (€ per tonne, 2010) that are provided from European Commission’s Handbook on External Costs of Transport. Results show that ICT measures can have significant impacts in terms of costs savings and can contribute to the rapidly reduce of carbon dioxide emissions.

Impacts of High Speed Trains on Tourism Development: A Case Study of Ankara Konya High Speed Rail Lines

Regional and urban transportation systems have a key role in developments in tourism activities. While people prefer air and maritime transportation in cross-country travels, they may prefer rail and road transportation in domestic travels. In domestic travels, alternatives related to transportation play an important role in terms of increasing tourism demand. On the other hand, passenger transportation alternatives such as high speed rail systems, light rail systems, subways and trams in urban areas can play an important role in customer behaviors related to tourism demands. In the past, some factors, such as history, entertainment, food and beverage had an importance; nowadays factors related to transportation have begun to gain importance for customers for comfortable, safe, cheap, speedy and safe travels. If available, high speed trains are mostly preferred by passengers because of these advantages. High speed trains can help reduce the economic and external costs of transportation. International and domestic tourism demands may increase thanks to high speed trains (HST). This paper analyses the impacts of High Speed Trains (HST) on regional and urban tourism development. On the other hand, HST can provide unusual tourism alternatives, passengers may travel to places of interest which are not included in their original itinerary using HST. However, HST can increase tourism demand. Before and after the opening of the high-speed train services, occurred changes related to tourism demand, including customers’ behaviors were taken into consideration and they were analyzed as variables. In this study, the high speed rail line between Ankara and Konya cities is selected as a case study. Impacts of HST on tourism demand are evaluated with the data obtained in the surveys.

Internalisation of external costs of transport in Flanders

We calculated the private and marginal external costs of different transport modes. The private costs are the costs for the user. For road transport, these include the vehicle purchase costs, insurances, maintenance, fuel costs, etc. For transport services (bus, train, plane), this is the ticket price. Marginal external costs are the costs the user does not take into account when deciding to make a trip. They are called marginal as we focus on the additional effect of that one trip. We considered congestion, environment (air pollution and greenhouse gasses), noise, safety, infrastructure wear & tear, and health.The internalization of external costs determines the extent to which the user does take into account part of these external costs via taxes and levies. In the case of full internalization, the user pays for all the costs he causes via taxes and levies. Today, in most cases, the user does not pay the full costs he causes.In this study, we calculated the private costs, marginal external costs, and degree of internalization for all modes in Flanders for the period 2000-2014, with an outlook towards 2016. Based on these calculations we assessed the evolution of the degree of internalization over time. Is Flanders heading towards the “polluter pays principle”? Which steps are needed to develop better pricing? We found that over the years the level of internalisation is mainly driven by changes in external costs rather than by a targeted adjustment of taxes. Recent changes in taxation such as the changes in car registration tax, yearly road tax and km charge for trucks did lead to an increase in internalisation, but we are still far from full internalisation. Moreover, it would be better to differentiate taxes not only on environmental performance but also on time and place. The levels of internalisation are also very different – not only between modes but also within the road mode.JEL codes: D62, H21, H23

Opłaty drogowe jako instrument internalizacji kosztów zewnętrznych transportu

Ruch samochodowy generuje negatywne skutki w postaci kosztów, które ponoszone są przez społeczeństwo, środowisko oraz gospodarkę. Jednym z głównych problemów jest znaczny wzrost emisji CO2 w UE. Wzmożony ruch wpływa także na pogorszenie się stanu infrastruktury drogowej. Zgodnie z polityką transportową Unii Europejskiej koszty te powinny zostać włączone do rachunku sprawców, zgodnie z zasadami „użytkownik płaci” oraz „zanieczyszczający płaci”. Skuteczny system opłat drogowych mógłby stać się ważnym instrumentem wykorzystywanym w celu internalizacji kosztów zewnętrznych transportu. Aby to jednak osiągnąć, opłaty drogowe przede wszystkim nie powinny być pobierane ze względu na czas przejazdu (winiety), ponieważ dyskryminuje to kierowców z zagranicy, jak również użytkowników płatnych dróg, którzy rzadziej korzystają z samochodów. W Polsce elektroniczny system poboru opłat drogowych stał się instrumentem internalizacji kosztów zewnętrznych 1 lipca 2011 roku. Od tej pory egzekwuje od użytkowników pokrywanie wygenerowanych strat związanych z negatywnymi efektami zewnętrznymi. Podjęto próbę oceny, czy opłaty drogowe stały się skutecznym bodźcem dla przewoźników drogowych do brania pod uwagę zewnętrznych kosztów transportu samochodowego w trakcie procesu podejmowania decyzji transportowych. Ważnym czynnikiem procesu internalizacji efektów zewnętrznych jest system prawodawczy Unii Europejskiej, który wpływa na dobór instrumentów internalizacji kosztów zewnętrznych, a także ich zakres. Istotne na tym polu okazują się opłaty drogowe jako narzędzie do kreowania oczekiwanych zachowań użytkowników dróg.

Planning and valorization of the branch Xa of Corridor X from the aspects of external costs

Branch Xa of Pan-European Transport Corridor X has a strategic importance for Croatia since this corridor (Corridor branch) enables linking of Croatia with Slovenia and Austria, which, according to the current data on the structure of trade in goods from countries, is counted among five most important Croatian trading partners. Therefore, the valorization of the branch of Corridor X has unquestionable importance for the Croatian economy and the associated surroundings that gravitate in the transport route. Conditional on the numerous geo-transport and socioeconomic factors, the valorization of transport corridor on the transport market is determined also by the value of transport (traffic) services that are determined by the costs incurred in its production. Accordingly, the underlying problem of the present study is to analyze the external costs of the branch of Corridor X which, although, belong to the category of social costs borne by society, have the intention to become, over various regulatory measures (excise), an integral part of the costs of the conveyor. With the aim of the research in this study, which, generally, supports the need for internalization of the external costs, as the essential factors of valorization of the transport corridors, a comparative analysis of external costs of the branch of Corridor X between the road and rail transport was performed. As input data, the results of in-depth analysis were used, resulting from the studies of the European Commission for the European Union, specifically Studies for Corridor X and Studies on East-Mediterranean transport routes. The research results show that the mean values of external costs of freight rail transport on the branch Xa are almost five times fewer than the average value of external costs of road transport and that, in accordance with the purpose of these investigations, the internalization of external costs is unquestionably required for planning the traffic flows and valorization of the route.

Estimation of External Costs of Transport in Canton Sarajevo for 2014

The main aim of this paper is to raise awareness of the necessity to estimate the external costs of transport, and in particular in urban area of Canton Sarajevo. It does not provide full extent of the costs as it focuses only on two components, air pollution and accidents. It focuses on the concise methodology for estimation of external expenses of air pollution from road and air transport and road traffic accidents, using official statistical data for modeling emissions (COPERT 4, Copert Street Level, IPPC Tier 3A methodology) and for accounting road traffic accidents. Statistical significance of correlation between traffic flow and measured concentration of pollutant at Otoka location is determined by Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Air pollution and traffic accidents are monetized according to the Synapse Energy Economics cost estimation of metric ton of CO2, and Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, for other pollutants, while estimation methodology for both air pollution and traffic accidents is done in line with Handbook on External Costs of Transport, European Commission.

Marginal cost-pricing in the Swedish transport sector – An efficient and sustainable way of funding local and regional public transport in the future?

Traffic results in negative external effects such as emissions, noise, congestion and infrastructural wear and tear. Public transport on the other hand, generates in many cases substantially larger positive system- and scale effects compared to its vehicle external marginal costs. This paper investigates actual external marginal costs of transport in Sweden for all modes of passenger transport in urban and rural areas and compare it to the level of positive system- and scale effects in local and regional public transport. The study is based on marginal costs of traffic in Sweden as reported in Transport Analysis yearly report to the government and on research on optimal public transport pricing. The numerical examples exemplify the situation in Sweden for a rural area (Jämtland County) and a larger urban area (Stockholm County). It is highlighted that taxes and fees in level with marginal costs can cover the existing financial deficit for public transport and an optimal subsidy in both the urban county and the rural county. However, among other things it is necessary to handle the legal aspects of such a funding of public transport before it could be used in the reality. Public transport are financed at county level, while the taxes and charges from traffic are an income on a national level.

Longer and heavier vehicles in Belgium: A threat for the intermodal sector?

To achieve transport cost reductions and to reduce the environmental impact of road transport, different European countries are allowing or testing longer and heavier vehicles on their road network. In Belgium, the Flanders region started a trial in 2015 allowing a limited number of longer and heavier vehicles on a selection of approved routes. A concern among intermodal operators is however that an allowance of longer and heavier vehicles could trigger a reverse modal shift away from rail and inland waterways container transport. Starting from experiences in other European countries, this paper discusses the potential spatial impact of allowing longer and heavier vehicles on the market areas of intermodal transhipment terminals using a geographic information systems-based location analysis model. In a second step, external transport costs are incorporated in this model, to quantify the spatially diversified societal costs of a potential reverse modal shift.

Road Transport System in Southeast Asia; Problems and Economic Solutions

In Southeast Asian countries (SEA), road transport accounts for the main energy consumption and CO2 emission. Air pollution is a major concern in densely populated cities such as Bangkok, Manila, and Kuala Lumpur. The main objective of this paper is to give insights on trends of transport development, car ownership, and CO2 emissions in Southeast Asia. This study also attempts to review the successful transportation policies around the globe and to introduce the possible instruments that can help reduce air pollution in Southeast Asian countries. Economic instruments to estimate the benefits of a cleaner environment due to new policies are introduced as well. The results of this research could help policy makers consider approaches that could internalize external costs of transportation and maximize the societal welfare.

External Costs as Competitiveness Factors for Freight Transport — A State of the Art

ABSTRACTExternal costs have been a key issue in the last years of transport research. In Europe, this trend is in line with the political willingness to internalize externalities in transport pricing policies. This paper has two purposes. It first identifies the recent work achieved in the field of external costs of road and intermodal freight transport, where each paper is assessed in terms of its perspective (academic or project oriented), its objective (prescription, application, projection), the type of externality (air pollution, climate change, noise, accidents, congestion) and the type of cost (marginal, average, total) that is considered. The literature review reveals a gap in the development of generic mathematical functions for external costs of transport. The second objective of the paper is thus to highlight the usefulness of such functions by identifying the main parameters that influence freight transport competitiveness in terms of external costs, and by determining which of these parameters should be incorporated in further research works.

Internalisation strategies of external costs of transport for a sustainable logistics

Transport is a priority issue for a sustainable development. The European Commission planned to implement a full and mandatory internalisation of the transport external costs within the 2020 (EU, 2011). Traditional inventory models, however, minimise logistics costs neglecting externalities. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the social and environmental benefits of the internalisation of the external costs in the inventory management problem. The sustainable order quantity model (Digiesi et al., 2012) has been adopted here in order to identify the optimal lot-size and transportation mean minimising logistic and external costs of transport. A sensitivity analysis has been performed in order to investigate the effects of different internalisation strategies on the solution of the inventory problem. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed strategies, they have been tested on a real case study.

Liberalization of the Railway Freight Market in the Context of a Sustainable Transport System

Transport is one of the most important economic sectors; it directly employs around 10 million people and it is concerned in GDP approximately 5% in the European Union (EU). The White Paper of 2011 underlines the need to create new traffic models that will make it possible to meet increasing demands for services through the effective use of various modes of transport and multimodal chains to reduce the external costs of transport. One of the important tools required to ensure sustainable transport is the liberalization of the railway freight transport market, whose main objective is to increase the competitiveness of railway transport reducing the negative impacts of transport on the environment. Actual problems from the view of sustainable transport are mainly those to do with in limited capacity and the level of transport infrastructure and the major differences between the capacity and quality of transport infrastructure in Western and Eastern Europe. The aim of our research is to design measures for the creation of free and undisturbed competition in freight transport to reduce the use of public resources, improving the quality of service even while reducing the social costs of transport. Support for this primary goal will be represented by the definition and description of the complex characteristics of: traffic flows and demand on logistic systems, multimodal chain, business conditions in the transport market, the role of managers of the railway infrastructure in the railway market, system of tolls of the railway infrastructure in terms of minimum access package and additional services in selected EU countries, the social costs of transport, including quantification of external effects, natural and value indicators in relation to the quality of transport processes. The paper deals with research conditions of the liberalization of the railway freight market in the context of a sustainable transport system. We have analysed the charging of the railway infrastructure in the V4 countries and Austria in order to compare charges for model trains. The paper presents a comparative analysis of the number of rail freight operators in individual countries vs rail freight transport performance. Based on this analysis, we investigated whether the liberalization of the rail freight market is reflected in the modal split for the benefit of rail transport.

External costs of electric vehicles

Electric vehicles (EV) are often considered a promising technology to decrease external costs of road transport. Therefore, main external cost components are estimated for EV and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). These include costs of accidents, air pollution, climate change, noise, and congestion. All components are estimated over the product lifetime and, where appropriate, differentiated according to fuel type, vehicle size as well as emission location and time. The advantage of this differentiation is, however, compensated by high uncertainties of most cost estimates. Overall, the external costs of EV and ICEV do not differ significantly. Only for climate change, local air pollutants in congested inner-cities, and noise some advantageous effects can be observed for EV. The advantages depend strongly on the national electricity power plant portfolio and potentially also on the charging strategy. Controlled charging might allow for higher emission reductions than uncontrolled charging of EV.

The evaluation of the environmental impact and the external factors of urban transport in Constanta

Transport activities are known to have a substantial negative environmental impact especially when referring to the urban transport. Studies have shown that external costs (as accidents, congestion, air emissions, climate change or noise) are an important subject of the European Union, that is why were carried out several research projects. This paper will highlight the current requirements and methodologies used by the European Union regarding the impact of the external costs of urban transport in most of the growth poles of Europe. Taking into consideration that Constanta is considered to be one of the seven major growth poles of Romania for the 2014-2020 period, this study aims at analyzing how the results of similar studies made in others centers of the European Union can be applied in Constanta, showing different methodologies and evaluations regarding the external costs and their impact. We will analyze how the conclusions obtained in previous projects are applicable to data collected by us throughout a field research on the technical description of the means of transport used it this city. As methodology, we will use one that was adopted by the European Union regarding the estimation of urban external costs, taking into consideration that each externality has a different method for estimating it. The results of this study may be useful in developing the sustainable urban mobility plan for Constanta, as a strategic plan design to reduce the impact of urban transport for a better quality of life at present and in the future. Through this paper we will get an insight into the urban transport in Constanta, but also data on external costs generated by the urban transport, given that road transport is considered to be the most polluting transport mode.

A differentiated tolls system – an effective transport policy tool for Slovenia?

We provide an econometric model of passenger and freight transportation demand based on panel data for 10 sections of toll roads in Slovenia. Transportation demand on Slovenian motorways is price inelastic. The price elasticity of transportation demand statistically varies among different parts of the toll sections, so it would seem sensible to introduce a differentiated toll system that would allow the simultaneous achievement of multiple objectives, such as increasing the internalization of the external costs of transport, increasing transportation demand management on the basis of price and increasing cost recovery for the maintenance and development of toll roads in Slovenia. Transportation demand is even more responsive to changes in fuel price than changes in tolls, so transportation policy can manage transportation demand using differences in fuel prices. Based on estimates of demand models differentiated according to several geographical groups of road sections, we also find that growth in the price elasticity of transportation demand in Slovenia can be achieved through the expansion of the transport supply by increasing the competitiveness of rail transport and alternative transportation routes.

External costs due to congestion, accidents, energy consumption and emissions before and into the economic crisis: Pilot study along selected roadways of Thessaloniki, Greece

Prior to the economic crisis, forecasts indicated a continuous increase of traffic in European cities, highlighting the need of a policy to alleviate the external impacts of transport. The crisis, however, generated pressures on all sectors of activity, with transport being an indicative example. The reduction of income and employment, the increased vehicle maintenance and renewal costs and the transport related taxation seem to affect the transport system and its external impacts. Thus, taking for granted that Europe will eventually achieve ?sustainable recovery? from the crisis, the current period presents an opportunity for promoting sustainable mobility policies and interventions in the most affected by the crisis European cities. Towards this goal, it is essential to capitalise on contemporary techniques for the monitoring of changes in transport external costs. The purpose of the paper is the development of a methodology for the estimation of external costs due to congestion, air pollution, climate change and accidents, based on road traffic data. The methodology is applied along road arteries in Thessaloniki for the period ?before and after? the emergence of the crisis. As a result, an overall decrease in external costs is observed, creating an unforeseen ?surplus? for the society during the crisis.