Transit-oriented Development Projects Research Articles

Re-orienting TOD concept and implementation in Jakarta

Since the 1990s, Jakarta city planning has introduced Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) as solution to dominant auto-mobility and sprawl to regional cities in Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi (JABODETABEK) by improving accessibility and inter-connectivity in urban mobility. Nevertheless, less has been investigated to what extent the on-going implementation in TOD projects departs from the means of TOD as planning approach in response to the urban problems. This paper aims to investigate TOD concept and implementation in Jakarta by proposing a comparative study on TOD in Japan and JABODETABEK, by using desk study in the planning documents and TOD projects. In each case, the investigation focuses on three sections; planning, implementation, and output. This paper reveals that the current TOD projects in Jakarta are based on single land development within proximity of TOD stations that maximizes private development benefits. Therefore, it concludes that the “TOD” projects in Jakarta have not yet met the TOD principles as a planning approach in response to the urban sprawls and integrated development.

Contradictions of Transit-Oriented Development in Low-Income Neighborhoods: The Case Study of Rosengård in Malmö, Sweden

Transit-oriented development (TOD) has become a leading model of urban planning worldwide that promises to meet a broad range of local and regional objectives: improving mobility, expanding ridership, attracting investment, reducing urban poverty, improving quality of life, making affordable housing and fostering urban integration. At the same time, the implementation of TOD in many cities has raised concerns about gentrification, displacement, re-segregation, and more polarization. This article aims to shed light on these issues by bringing together previously disparate literature that mentions these contradictions and discusses policymakers’ hopes and critics’ concern for the implementation of a newly started TOD project in a universal housing system in Rosengård—a segregated, low-income neighborhood in Malmö, Sweden. Although policy advocates view the project as a significant development strategy for a more sustainable Malmö, there are also real concerns about gentrification and the potential displacement of low-income residents. Furthermore, the mixed-methods study showes how integration might be achieved, but concerns have arisen about the possible exclusion of the current low-income residents, which brings up issues of inequality, representation of poverty, and marginalization.

Using Big and Open Data to Analyze Transit-Oriented Development

Problem, research strategy, and findings: In this study, we investigate how to exploit big and open data (BOD) to quantitatively examine the relationships between transit-oriented development (TOD) attributes and TOD outcomes. Here, TOD attributes are measurable or perceivable attributes that TOD proponents cherish, and TOD outcomes are the targeted outcomes, such as increased ridership, associated at least partially with TOD attributes. Based on BOD from Shenzhen (China), we create indicators to measure both TOD attributes and outcomes. We explore the associations of TOD attributes, including centrality of a TOD site, travel time to the central business district, density, destination, diversity, and design, with TOD outcomes. We identify the TOD attribute that best predicts TOD outcomes such as metro ridership, frequent riders, people co-located in a station area, and ratios derived from these outcomes. We find that special neighborhoods, specific metro lines, and age of the district significantly influence TOD outcomes. Our study has a few limitations: a) the BOD we use do not directly measure TOD attributes, so proxies must be used; and b) the BOD we use contain little information about “why,” “who,” and “how,” such as why people rode transit, who they were, and how they perceived/appreciated various TOD attributes.Takeway for practice: BOD-derived variables allow planners to revalidate existing planning guidelines and principles concerning TOD and adapt them to local contexts. BOD can also be used to formulate new metrics to evaluate different TOD plans or projects in ways not achievable with traditional data alone. In short, BOD can and should be used to refine TOD analytics and design and to implement corresponding theories in pursuit of TOD.

Optimizing Property Income in Transit Oriented Development: A Case Study of Jakarta TOD

Transit-oriented development (TOD) can make a significant contribution to the development of Jabodebek Light Rail Transit (LRT) in Indonesia. The increase of property value affected by the existence of LRT station can be considered as one of the potential revenues for TOD projects. This study aims to estimate property income for housing, commercial, and office in the TOD-based areas. Interview is used to obtain the variable characteristics for the hedonic price modeling (HPM) suitability from the benchmark TOD areas with the case study TOD areas at the Jabodebek LRT line. The HPM coefficient of the value increase from the benchmark that has conformance characteristics with the case study will be used to calculate the magnitude of the increase of property value. It is found that due to the influence of the hedonic coefficient, the property income of Ciracas TOD is 414.5 billion rupiah with an internal rate of return (IRR) of 11.7%, the property income of Bekasi Timur TOD is 84 billion rupiah with IRR of 11.01%, the property income of Cibubur TOD is 152.97 billion rupiah with IRR of 19.51 %, and the property income of Jaticempaka TOD is 330.36 billion with IRR of 12.01%.

Negotiating Integrated Land and Transport Development: A Simulation Gaming Approach to Innovative Value Capture Mechanisms in China

ABSTRACTLand value capture is considered as a promising strategy to finance transit-oriented development (TOD). This paper aims to provide a better understanding of the potential to apply negotiable developer obligations (NDOs) for TOD projects in China through two game experiments simulating negotiation processes. Based on the conceptual framework of three fundamental dilemmas, our findings indicate that (1) value capture-based contributions to TOD often ‘compete’ with other public goals; (2) despite lacking clear regulation, some cities have successfully introduced informal practices to acquire developer contributions; and (3) NDOs seem less feasible under the current conditions of the anti-corruption campaign in China.

Transit-oriented development: A review of research achievements and challenges

Abstract Among the attempts made worldwide to foster urban and transport sustainability, transit-oriented development (TOD) certainly is one of the most successful. Since the TOD concept appeared in the late 1980s, it has received increasing attention from researchers and practitioners as a way to merge together transport engineering and planning, land-use planning, and urban design for providing comprehensive solutions to contemporary urban problems. This attention has notably led to the publication of over 300 articles explicitly concerned with TOD in Web of Science journals, as well as to many implementations of the concept, some already completed and others underway (as, for example, the Grand Paris Project in France and Moscow Central Circle in Russia). Essentially, TOD can be described as land-use and transport planning that makes sustainable transport modes convenient and desirable, and that maximizes the efficiency of transport services by concentrating urban development around transit stations. However, as TOD projects started to be implemented worldwide, it became evident that their outcomes could be quite diverse, revealing that in practice the results of a project would depend on a wide variety of factors, trends and complex interrelations between them. In this article, we aim to provide a comprehensive, systematic and up-to-date review of TOD research achievements and challenges. We start by presenting the TOD concept, framing it in the theory of urban planning, and by describing the different typologies of TOD proposed in the literature. Then, we review the vast research dedicated to the study of TOD effects, distinguishing impacts on travel behavior, real-estate prices, residential location, urban form, and community life. The next subject we look at is TOD planning, focusing separately on policy issues and decision-support tools. In the final part of the article, based on the analysis of previous literature, we identify the main gaps and challenges that TOD research needs to address in the future.

Towards Sustainable Transportation: Identification of Development Challenges of TOD area in Jakarta Metropolitan Area Urban Railway Projects

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) becomes one of sustainable transportation concepts that have been implemented around the world to overcome the transport problems in certain area. This paper aims to identify and to explain general challenges encountered by Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JMA) in the process of adopting TOD. The study is expected to explain the local context discourse and important elements of the TOD area development. The study utilizes a qualitative approach, by applying both primary and secondary sources. The primary data was obtained from in-depth interview in 4 (four) Focus Group Discussions (FGD) conducted from October 2017 to July 2018. The secondary data was acquired from literature reviews, institution reports, and existing policy review. The study observed 5 (five) TOD project currently developed by the private and public sector, such as TOD Dukuh Atas, TOD Ciracas, TOD Cikoko, TOD Pasar Senen, and TOD Tanjung Barat. It is found that the challenges of developing TOD in the case studies comprise 4 (four) important elements, such as regulation, planning and design of TOD, institutional issues, and funding. In this early stage of developing TOD, Indonesia, specifically JMA, still has ample in understanding the challenges of implementing TOD.

Assessing Transit-Oriented Development Implementation in Canadian Cities: An Urban Project Approach

This article presents a new theoretical approach for assessing the implementation process of transit-oriented development (TOD). Through a conceptual framework, based on the notion of the urban project as an instrument of public policy, it highlights two distinct processes at work in the implementation of every TOD project: territorialization and differentiation. The first suggests that there are necessarily discrepancies between metropolitan planning strategies and the very local nature of the TOD projects. The second suggests that implementing a TOD project is an incremental process rooted in local policy conditions that must be factored in at every phase of the implementation process.

Multiscale Transit Oriented Development (TOD) for sustainable communities

Transit Oriented Development in districts and cities planning is dependent on multiple factors including: location, context, population density and redevelopment strategy. Transit Oriented Development Institute (US national planning organization to promote sustainable communities around rail stations) identifies ten principles which characterize the TOD communities and among them: stations and communications hubs located in sites with highest ridership potential, higher density mixed-used, walkable development in ½ mile radius from station, pedestrian oriented communication with retain and café streets, public squares in proximity of stations, reduce of parking space, multi-modal connections and stations which act as generators of communities redevelopment. The research examines the concept of TOD on chosen case studies, describes the pattern of urban form which best suites TOD districts and cities and evaluate current practices. The research examines the concept of TOD on chosen case studies, describes the pattern of urban form which best suites TOD districts and cities and evaluates current practices. The paper is based on analysis of TOD projects on different scales: from TOD introduced at international scale (e.g. the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in the selected Latin America large cities), at national scale in large metropolitan cities (e.g. in high density Central Business Districts of Dalian city in China) and at urban, urban fringe and neighborhood scale of Edmonton in Canada. The literature review study examines the patterns of transit-oriented development and highlights current planning practices. The research was based on identifying contemporary case studies, through the analysis of literature, reports, government and policy documents, conference proceedings and websites of international networks relevant to transit-oriented development.

Evaluation of transit proximity effects on residential land prices: an empirical study in Austin, Texas

ABSTRACTThe Austin MetroRail line in Texas, U.S.A. began operations in 2010 and since then transit-oriented development projects have been fuelled around train stations. Traditional location theory holds that proximity to a transit station should be capitalized into land prices, and numerous empirical studies have demonstrated the effects with mixed results. However, to date no empirical study has investigated this relationship between the newly built rail line and land prices in Austin. This study fills the research gap and suggests a positive effect associated with transit proximity by employing spatial hedonic models. This study also contributes to the existing literature especially in the context of Texas cities where there is a lack of relevant research on transit-capitalization-related topics, and provides insights for decision-makers with different perspectives regarding further rail investment or transportation financing strategies such as value capture programs.

Transit-oriented development in an urban rail transportation corridor

Transit-oriented development (TOD) has been recognized as an important avenue for creating a green transportation system. This paper addresses TOD investment issue in terms of the location, number and size of the TOD zones along a rail line. An urban system equilibrium problem with TOD investment is first formulated. Two social welfare maximization models, which take into account different investment regimes for TOD projects (i.e., public and private), are then proposed for optimizing TOD investment schemes along a rail line and train service frequency on that line. In the public regime model, the government is responsible for the investment cost of TOD projects, which is borne by the private property developers in the private regime model. The proposed models explicitly consider the interactions among the government, property developers and households in the urban system, together with the effects of the TOD investment on households’ residential location choices and housing market. The population thresholds for investing in a TOD project under the public and private regimes are also identified. The findings show that the TOD investment can cause population agglomeration at the TOD zones and a compact city; households and the society can benefit from the TOD investment; and the private TOD investment regime outperforms the public regime in terms of total social welfare of urban system.

Decision Support Framework for Transit-Oriented Development Projects

Although the use of personal automobiles in the United States continues to grow, there are increasing concerns about the possible effects of automobile-dependent transportation, including environmental concerns, the reduction in the quality of life caused by long commutes, and a decline of community and societal interactions. These concerns have led to discussions on the revitalization of public transportation systems. To counter the problem of congestion resulting from modern urbanization, urban planners have developed the idea of transit-oriented development (TOD), designed to encourage the use of public transit and the creation of pedestrian-friendly environments. The plethora of literature on this subject is no surprise, considering the issues of revitalization of community living and affordable housing and related factors directly influencing and getting influenced by TOD. Notwithstanding the abundance of literature on TOD, the literature review uncovered few studies that somewhat address the important question, “How can a transit agency choose between alternative TOD sites to develop or build?” Given this, the purpose of this research is to develop a decision support framework that can be used by different transit agencies when choosing a TOD site to develop or build by incorporating and assessing unique success factors and their weights. This research uses a multiple-criteria decision-making tool called the analytic hierarchy process in developing that framework. The paper presents two implementation examples that demonstrate the feasibility of the developed decision support framework for both a large, urban transit district and a smaller, more rural transit agency.

Alternative transit-oriented development evaluation in sustainable built environment planning

Following the increase in urban population density and house prices in the 1970s, urban residents began searching for satisfactory living environments. With the construction of highways and advancements in motor vehicle technology, urban development began extending to suburban regions, a phenomenon which is referred to as urban sprawl. The negative external effects caused by urban sprawl, including inefficient land use and pollution, highlight several problems such as the disjunction between urban land use and transportation. To achieve sustainable transportation and resolve the aforementioned problems, we established the transit-oriented development (TOD) evaluation criteria and formulated the TOD site selection standard, which fulfills the principle of sustainable transportation. Thus, a solution to problems related to urban sprawl is proposed, which may serve as a reference for planning units in devising relevant processes.The fuzzy Delphi method was adopted to select TOD evaluation criteria satisfying the principle of sustainable transportation, and the fuzzy analytic network process (FANP) was applied to determine the weights of relevant planning criteria. The results show that all nine TOD evaluation criteria for sustainable transportation were supported by an expert consensus in the first phase of the study, indicating that all of the selected criteria were critical in the TOD evaluation. In the second phase, according to the weighted evaluation criteria, the environmental carrying capacity in high-density development was the most crucial evaluation criterion, whereas the least critical criterion was equality in residence accessibility. Finally, through the use of a geographical information system, the performance of each station on the Ankeng Line of the New Taipei City mass rapid transit (MRT) system was evaluated according to the TOD evaluation criteria. Combining the evaluation with the weighted sums of the FANP revealed that Xinhe Elementary School MRT station was the optimal station for TOD. Accordingly, built environment planning should be undertaken to develop the urban area surrounding this station. The findings of this study may provide a reference for planning units in undertaking future TOD projects under the principle of sustainable transportation.

TOD(대중교통중심)형 도시개발 특성 및 발전전략에 관한 연구

The aim of this study was to suggest characteristics and strategies of urban development focused on Transit Oriented Development (TOD). For this study, the relevant concepts of TOD were reviewed, and the types of urban development based on TOD was surveyed. As a case study, 7 TOD projects implemented in advanced countries were analyzed in the terms to change in urban spatial structure, urban balance development and connection of public transportation. The conclusions are as follows. First, the regal system and the support mechanism for success of the public-private partnership are essential for TOD. Second, the role of public sector leads planning, implementation and management should be emphasized in the development process, and mitigation of the development density and revision of a municipal ordinance for promoting TOD are necessary. Third, a public transportation plan and land-use plan in the downtown areas should be integrated, and the enlargement of the urban infrastructure through public assets by the local authority is essential.

Minimizing Investment Risk of Integrated Rail and Transit-Oriented-Development Projects over Years in a Linear Monocentric City

Rail and transit-oriented-development (TOD) projects are simultaneously optimized in this paper, with special consideration given to yearly variation and spatial and temporal correlation of population densities. In the proposed model, the objective is to minimize the investment risk of integrated rail and TOD projects with a given required expected return on investment. The investment risk is optimized based on closed-form solutions of the design variables, including rail line length, the number of TOD projects, and the number of housing units in each TOD project. The closed-form solutions are given explicitly under the assumption of social welfare maximization. It is found that underestimation exists for rail and TOD projects without consideration of the correlation of spatial and temporal population densities. TOD projects can greatly improve the return on investment of the rail operator. A numerical example is also presented.

Leerproces voor planologisch wetenschappelijk onderzoek en de praktijk

Planning research is increasingly focused on bridging the gap between practice and academia. However, this requires much effort and is not as commonplace as it seems. To ensure success, innovative research approaches, practitioners and academics are required. The experiential learning cycle of Kolb and Fry (1974) offers a research framework for the authors to reflect on their practice-oriented research on Cost Benefit Analysis processes (CBA) and Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) respectively. Both research projects are compared using the learning cycle. The cycle was completed in the CBA project but only partially resolved in the TOD project. Reflecting on their experiences with applying the learning cycle, the authors conclude on the possibilities and limitations of this application and offer insight into how the interaction between theory and practice can occur.

Ideas, Interests, and Institutions: Explaining Dutch Transit-Oriented Development Challenges

As a planning concept, transit-oriented development (TOD) has become popular in the Netherlands over the last few decades. However, the transition from planning concept to development practice has been fraught with difficulties. Where TOD projects have been implemented, they have often met with limited success in terms of livability and market viability. This paper examines TOD-related efforts in the Netherlands and the reasons for their difficulties up to now. The analysis is built around an analytical framework, which considers the role of ‘ideas’, ‘interests’, and ‘institutions’, as well as their interaction, in affecting the outcomes of these TOD efforts.

Transforming cities with transit: transit and land-use integration for sustainable urban development

Transforming Cities with Transit explores the complex process of transit and land-use integration in rapidly growing cities in developing countries. As one of the most promising strategies for advancing environmental sustainability, economic competitiveness, and socially inclusive development in fast-growing cities, transit and land-use integration is increasingly being embraced by policy-makers at all levels of government. This book focuses on identifying barriers to and opportunities for effective coordination of transport infrastructure and urban development. Global best-case practices of transit-oriented metropolises that have direct relevance to cities in developing countries are first introduced. Key institutional, regulatory, and financial constraints that hamper integration and opportunities to utilise transit to guide sustainable urban development are examined in selected cities in developing countries. For this, the book analyses their Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems and their impact on land development. The book formulates recommendations and implementation strategies to overcome barriers and take advantage of opportunities. It asserts that unprecedented opportunities have and will continue to arise for the successful integration of transit and land development in much of the developing world. Many cities in developing countries currently exhibit the pre-requisites - e.g., rapid growth, rising real incomes, and increased motorisation and congestion levels - for BRT and railway investments to trigger meaningful land-use changes in economically and financially viable ways. Recommendations for creating more sustainable cities of the future range from macro-level strategies that influence land development and governance at the metropolitan scale to micro-level initiatives, like Transit Oriented Development (TOD), that can radically transform development patterns at the neighbourhood level. The book will be of interest to a wide and diverse audience, including mayors, council members and other national and local policy makers, urban and transportation planners, transit-agency officials, and developers and staff of development financial institutions and others involved with TOD projects in rapidly growing and motorising cities of the developing world.

TOD Versus TAD: The Great Debate Resolved…(?)

This paper discusses the distinction between transit-oriented development (TOD) and so-called ‘transit-adjacent development’ (TAD)—a label sometimes applied to less-successful TOD efforts. It is suggested that transport performance is the key factor distinguishing between the two outcomes—and that despite complexities, clearer quantitative benchmarks are needed. Much of the literature and discussion on TOD centres around a perceived failing of many TOD project attempts to deliver a ‘genuine transit-oriented outcome’. Often, this discussion has remained at a thematic level, or has rested on subjective qualitative appraisal, or critique of design or built-form outcomes. With a few exceptions, researchers and experts have generally been reluctant to provide a clear benchmark for TOD success or failure—perhaps because so many well-intentioned TOD efforts fall short of initial expectations. This paper puts forward a proposal that mode share should be the apex metric for determining TOD project success or failure. It is suggested that a majority (50%+) of travel movements need to be accommodated by the sustainable modes (walking, cycling, and public transit) for a location to assume the label of ‘genuine TOD’. Equally, other locations that attempt TOD, but do not deliver a sustainable travel majority, might be placed in the ‘TAD’ category. Benchmark figures from international precincts and locales are used to sustain this argument—with reference to the broader planning, urban development, and design contexts in which these ideas sit.

Densificazione vs dispersione urbana

The urban sprawl that consumes land and don’t create urban quality is definitely one of the most serious crisis in the territory, historically became from the American model of the CBD (Central Business District) associated with dense and low-density suburbs boundless, achievable through the use of the car, which extended the size of the city - the shape and extension of American cities would be inconceivable without the car. A model that has spread to Europe after World War II, implemented in a very wide range, from the policy of the Grand ensembles in French to the several models of New Towns in Britain. In Italy, municipalities and governments, from different scales, had to do a choice: let advancing evolution spontaneous, sometimes wild, of employment land or prevented a proliferation of the city and to plan the development. After the Second World War, urban development is under the control of the plans (Milan, Rome, Naples). The '80s and '90s have seen the urban planning trend in the dispersion as urbanized countryside and urban sprawl. Even today we witness the phenomenon that the municipalities dramatically urbanized always new agricultural areas to cash related expenses of urbanization (which does not receive if re-building in existent areas).The demolition and rebuild seems less convenient to consume new agricultural land, hardly ever accepted the idea of reusing sites in favor of the environment and quality of life. The same policy of "smart-growth", in the '90s, are systems of rules designed to reduce suburban sprawl. Yet the recovery of degraded areas to build dense and modern buildings seem the only option to go, but unfortunately is not convenient enough. The densification can represent a policy to counter urban sprawl that consumes land and don't create urban quality and that is -no doubt-one of the most serious crisis in the territory. The return of the theme of the density to determine a control of building to ensure better standards of living and thinking on the techniques of urban densification as a tool to combat sprawl, which they form the ecological network, is the basis of new model of urban and social development that is characterizing the recent decisions of metropolitan cities as London or Berlin, but also of many American cities. Return to discuss densification demonstrates a phase of change in the process of urbanization based on the return of the attraction of major global cities, both for the concentration of economic activities that urban life with the intensity of relationships and cultural development. In this article, as well as exploring the concept of urban form dense and continuous, it also raises key issues such as the "city effect", you want through the exploration of the principles of the innovative practice of densification in areas of existing stations and Transit Oriented Development project (TOD), identify the principles behind this innovative practice.