Transesterification Reaction Of Oil Research Articles

Metal Oxide Doped Egg Shell-Fly Ash Composite: An Effective Catalyst for Transesterification of Waste Oil

Biodiesel is a promising alternative for fossil fuels as it is a renewable source of energy and is considered a green fuel. Generally used method for preparation of biodiesel is catalytic transesterification. Fly ash, an inorganic waste, is a major environmental contaminant. The utilization and safe management of this material is the need of the hour. In this short communication, we report a composite of fly ash and eggshell modified with zinc oxide (ZEF) as a low-cost, efficient, and reusable heterogeneous base catalyst for transesterification reaction of waste cooking oil. The catalyst was prepared by the wet impregnation method and was characterized by FT-IR, XRD, and SEM techniques. Catalytic performance was checked in biodiesel preparation. Conditions like catalyst loading, oil: methanol ratio, temperature, and time were optimized. Product formation was confirmed by the GC analysis.

Biodiesel production by single-step acid-catalysed transesterification of Jatropha oil under microwave heating with modelling and optimisation using response surface methodology

Biodiesel is known as one of the best alternative fuels for diesel engines. Low-cost Jatropha oil is considered a potential non-edible feedstock for biodiesel production in India and many other parts of the world. Jatropha oil contains a large amount of free fatty acids (FFA), and soap formation occurs during the alkali catalysed transesterification process, hence decreasing the biodiesel yield. The acid catalyst is less sensitive to FFA, but the reaction rate is extremely slow if the transesterification reaction occurs by conventional heating. In the present investigation, microwave heating was used for biodiesel production by the single-step transesterification reaction of Jatropha oil in the presence of an acidic catalyst (sulphuric acid). The central composite rotatable design (CCRD) matrix of response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to determine the optimum design conditions for the transesterification reaction under microwave irradiation. The effects of three selected variables, namely reaction time, catalyst concentration, and methanol, on the oil molar ratio, were assessed. The maximum yield of biodiesel produced in the selected design space by microwave heating was found to be 61.10% under the 11:7 M ratio of the methanol to oil, 2 wt% catalyst concentration, and 90 min reaction time, which was much higher than the biodiesel yield by conventional heating method (3.8%) for the same reaction time. The modified polynomial model for the microwave heating method was developed with the help of ANOVA, main effect plots, interaction plots, and surface plots. The experimental and predicted yield values for fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) showed a linear relationship. The validation of experiments confirmed the accuracy of the suggested model. The produced biodiesel was of good quality, as all the properties were within the prescribed limits of the ASTM D6751 standard. The results of this study showed that the microwave heating method can be used efficiently to obtain a high biodiesel yield from low-cost, high-FFA feedstock such as Jatropha oil in a sulphuric acid-catalysed single-step transesterification reaction.

Insight into the sulfonation conditions on the activity of sub-bituminous coal as acidic catalyst during the transesterification of spent corn oil; effect of sonication waves

The impact of the sulfonation conditions on the catalytic activity of coal as an acidic catalyst was assessed by normal stirring (NS.Coal) and sonication waves (SS.Coal) based on the Response Surface methodology. The NS.Coal exhibits acid density and surface area of 8.8 mmol/g and 27.8 m2/g, respectively. This was obtained after 90 min at sulfonation conditions of 150 °C temperature and 95% H2SO4 concentration. In the existence of sonication waves for 60 min (240 W), SS.Coal shows acid density and surface area of 14.2 mmol/g and 45.8 m2/g, respectively. This demonstrates significant efficiency for the sonication-induced sulfonation processes during the synthesis of sulfonated coal as an acidic catalyst. The activities of NS.Coal and SS.Coal acidic catalysts were evaluated during the transesterification of corn oil. The best yield was obtained by NS.Coal (4 wt, %) is 99.3% after 60 min at 60 °C in the presence of 14:1 methanol/oil ratio. The archived yields using SS.Coal at loading values of 2 wt, %, 3 wt, %, and 4 wt, % are 99.6%, 99.84%, and 99.85%, respectively after 20 min. The kinetic properties of reactions were illustrated based on the Pseudo-First order assumption. The thermodynamic studies demonstrate the endothermic properties of the corn oil transesterification reactions. The determined activation energy by NS.Coal and SS.Coal are 26.22 kJ/mol and 17.7 kJ/mol, respectively reflect the possible use of them as effective catalysts at low energy and mild conditions.

Synthesis of Carbide Lime Waste Derived Base Catalyst (KF/CLW-Fe3O4) for Methyl Ester Production: An Optimization Study

In this paper, solid base catalyst KF/CLW-Fe3O4 was prepared from carbide lime waste, primarily calcium hydroxide with tiny amounts of carbonate and; the catalyst was used in the optimization study on the methyl ester production. The new strong base catalyst was synthesized by chemical impregnation. This catalyst was characterized by Hammett indicator analysis, Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET), scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) of carbon dioxide. The catalyst was further used to catalyzed the transesterification reaction to produce methyl ester. Taguchi method was used to assess the impact of catalyst at different intervals of reaction parameters, including reaction time, methanol to oil ratio, and catalyst loading. A mixed level of orthogonal array design with L9, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and signal to noise ratio were used to determine parameters that significantly impact the palm oil transesterification reaction. High methyl ester conversion was attained, and the catalyst can be easily separated and reused. KF/CLW-Fe3O4 has great potential to be used to produce methyl ester because of its high catalytic activity and environmental friendliness. Copyright © 2021 by Authors, Published by BCREC Group. This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0).

Pengaruh Penambahan Co-solvent Metil Ester dan Waktu Reaksi pada Proses Transesterifikasi Minyak Kelapa Sawit Menjadi FAME (Fatty Acid Methyl Esters)

Biodiesel is a renewable energy that is expected to replace diesel. The process of making biodiesel is constrained due to the limited solubility of the reactants. One way to increase the solubility is to add a co-solvent that can dissolve polar and non-polar materials. Methyl ester is the best co-solvent because it is cheap and can shorten the stages of the biodiesel manufacturing process. The aim of the research was to obtain the optimum conditions for the transesterification process with the addition of co-solvent methyl ester. The operating conditions of the study were palm oil raw material, 1% NaOH catalyst mass, oil : methanol molar ratio = 1:6, stirring speed 100 rpm, reaction temperature 70 ⁰C, reaction time (5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, 20 minutes, 25 minutes, 30 minutes) and the mass of co-solvent (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%). The optimum conditions of the study obtained the optimum FAME yield of 57.33% in the transesterification reaction of palm oil with 15% co-solvent methyl ester at a reaction time of 15 minutes. At the optimum condition obtained FAME concentration of 96.63% which meets SNI 7182-2015.

PRODUCTION CHARACTERIZATION AND TESTING OF SOYBEAN BIODIESEL IN A DIESEL CYCLE ENGINE

The characteristics of the biodiesel produced by the transesterification reaction of soybean oil with anhydrous ethanol, catalyzed by sodium hydroxide and its thermo-oxidative stability, were investigated by thermal analysis and viscosity. It was analyzed density at 20 °C, sulfur content, cetane number, carbon residue, iodine index, acidity, sulphated ash, the total content of glycerin and unreacted fatty acids. The synthesis of biodiesel via ethanolic processed in a Pyrex glass reactor with 2/1 molar ratio triglyceride/anhy-drous ethanol and 1% of catalyst, 60 °C. After the reaction, the phases were separated and glycerin was removed. The biodiesel was washed with 0.1M HCl solution, at ~ 70 oC for neutralization. The physicochemical analysis, all parameters for biodiesel met the requirements of the ANP Technical Standards. From the produced biodiesel, binary mixtures were made with diesel in the proportions of 2, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30%. The objective was to study the behavior of mixtures in a diesel cycle engine coupled to a dynamometer of Eddy Current. In this study of burning biodiesel blends in diesel engine were analyzed and compared with pure diesel parameters: consumption, efficiency, performance, torque and power. The results showed that the mixtures had very similar properties and performance to pure diesel by mixing 20%. To the mixture with 30% there has been a significant drop in torque and power and slight increase in consumption. Thus, it was shown that soybean oil biodiesel, mixtures of 2% to 30%, is applicable as an alternative fuel aptly, for the diesel cycle engines, because it is a renewable and environmentally friendly fuel.

Production of biodiesel from salvia mirzayanii oil via electrolysis using KOH/Clinoptilolite as catalyst.

In recent years, fossil fuels are the main energy supply in both transportation and industry. Their increasing consumption has been causing global warming and acid raining. One of the alternative fuels that is considered today is biodiesel, which is clean and eco-friendly. The main method for biodiesel production is transesterification reaction of triglyceride oil with methanol in the presence of a suitable catalyst. In this research, biodiesel was produced from Salvia mirzayanii oil in the presence of KOH/Clinoptilolite catalyst. The impregnation, hydrothermal, and incipient wetness methods were used for loading KOH on the Clinoptilolite support to produce biodiesel via electrolysis method. The characteristics of the KOH/Clinoptilolite catalyst were examined through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analyses. The effects of key parameters including catalyst amount, methanol to oil molar ration, reaction time, reaction temperature, co-solvent type and its proportion, electrolysis voltage, catalyst reusability, and KOH concentration were examined on the biodiesel yield. The results of elemental analysis confirmed that KOH was well loaded on Clinoptilolite support. The highest yield of biodiesel was obtained 79% in the presence of 10wt% catalyst, alcohol to oil ratio of 9:1, acetone concentration of 10wt%, temperature of 60°C, and voltage of 10V. The results of GC-MS, FTIR and H-NMR analyses illustrated that biodiesel as a product was produced with good quality. Based on the obtained results, in all three methods of catalyst synthesis KOH was loaded on Clinoptilolite support but at the end of the transesterification reaction only the catalyst synthesis via incipient wetness method could be reused three times under optimum reaction conditions. The produced biodiesel had high quality, whose physical and chemical properties had good agreement with ASTM, EN 14214, IS 15607 standards. Since the salvia mirzayanii oil is an appropriate feedstock source for biodiesel production, it is suggested to use salvia mirzayanii oil and KOH/Clinoptilolite catalyst to produce biodiesel on industrial scale.

Castor oil transesterification catalyzed by a new red mud based LiAlO2-LiFeO2 composite

In this study, a new low-cost LiAlO2-LiFeO2 composite (Li/RM) was prepared through a simple solid-state reaction using red mud (RM) as raw material, and the transesterification of castor oil with methanol for biodiesel production was carried out with the prepared Li/RM composite. The optimum preparation parameters of Li/RM composite were obtained, and the optimum preparation parameters were as follows: mass ratio of Li2CO3 to RM 2.5:1, calcination temperature 900 °C and calcination time 3 h. The synthetic catalysts were characterized by Thermogravimetric-Differential Thermogravimetric (TG-DTG), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller method (BET) and CO2-Temperature programmed desorption (CO2-TPD). The biodiesel conversion of 96.32% was obtained under optimal parameters of reaction temperature of 65 °C, catalyst amount of 5 wt%, reaction time of 2.5 h and methanol/oil molar ratio of 15:1. Meanwhile, the kinetics and thermodynamics studies revealed that the transesterification reaction of castor oil obeyed the pseudo-first-order kinetics and was an endothermic, non-spontaneous reaction. The possible catalytic mechanism catalyzed by Li/RM catalyst was further investigated. Besides, the Li/RM composite had an excellent air tolerance and retained its good reusability after four cycles, indicating that Li/RM was an efficient and durable heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production.

Acid transesterification of oils with ethanol on carbon catalysts

The main advantages and disadvantages of solid-phase catalysts for transesterification reactions of oils with alcohols are analyzed. Tests of the sulfonated and phosphated solid - phase catalysts synthesized by us in the transesterification reaction of rapeseed oil with 96% ethanol in order to obtain biodiesel were carried out. The chemical resistance of sulfonated synthetic (S-SCS) and synthesized from natural raw materials (S-KAU) catalysts was compared. The reasons for low chemical resistance of sulfonated carbon-containing materials are determined. Synthetic S-SCS catalysts proved to be the least stable. Regeneration of phosphated samples was performed by washing the catalyst from oil residues and reaction products in a boiling solution of 0.1 M alkali, followed by repeated washing with distilled water to slightly alkaline pH. Then, after drying, the obtained material was used as a source for re-synthesis of the catalyst. The ethanolysis reaction was carried out in autoclaves under pressure at a temperature of 150-160oC with a process duration of 5-7 hours. The ratio of catalyst to starting oil was chosen 1:15 (g : ml). The oil-alcohol ratio was 3: 4, vol. The volume of the autoclave was 45 ml. The maximum conversion under these test conditions in the first cycle for sulfonated catalysts was 100%, and for phosphated - 94%. A carbon-containing catalyst on a ceramic support has been developed, which can be regenerated by firing the carbon-containing material and applying a new one. This catalyst showed the highest chemical resistance, withstanding 7 cycles, while the conversion fell by 14% (from 89 to 75%). For more efficient use of the catalyst, the scheme of flow-circulation installation of transesterification of oils and fats of biological origin with alcohols was proposed.

Process design and simulation of industrial-scale biodiesel purification using membrane technology

Biodiesel is commonly produced through a transesterification reaction of vegetable oil with alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to produce fatty acid methyl ester (FAME). The reaction also produces glycerol as a by-product that must be separated from the FAME to obtain a biodiesel product that meets international standards. The common method to remove glycerol from FAME is washing with water. However, it produces a vast amount of wastewater and consumes much energy. Membrane technology is a promising separation technique for removing glycerol from biodiesel on an industrial scale since the separation using membrane does not produce wastewater and the energy consumption is low. In this work, the application of membrane technology to separate biodiesel and glycerol was studied through a process design and simulation of an industrial scale biodiesel purification process with a production capacity of 723 kL/day. A multistage feed-and-bleed microfiltration membrane system was designed to purify biodiesel from glycerol, and the process simulation was carried out using computer programming. The result of the process simulation showed that purified biodiesel could be produced by using the multistage microfiltration membrane system. The minimum membrane area required for the separation process in each stage could be calculated using the computer program. It was found that the total membrane area decreased with the increasing number of stages. A reduction of the total membrane area of 37% was achieved using ten stages microfiltration system. The optimum number of the stages could be determined through a tradeoff analysis of the cost to minimize the capital cost of the multistage membrane system. For the case study in this work, a stage number of 4 was found as the optimum stage number of the microfiltration system. This result showed that the membrane technology has great potential to be applied for the industrial-scale biodiesel purification process.

Pine oil and glycerol ketal as components of B10 fuel blends

The main exploitation fuel properties of the B10 blends in the presence (or absence) of glycerol ketal and pine oil additivities have been examined and studied by the ASTM standards. Methanol (or ethanol) biodiesel has been obtained by the transesterification reaction of sunflower oil in the presence of potassium hydroxide. The conversion is 91 and 96% using 1:3 molar ratio of oil to alcohols at 65 and 75°C respectively. The results obtained are demonstrated that the investigated B10 fuel blends with oxygenated compounds have greater potential for diesel engines than, B100 and fossil diesel. The oxidation properties of B10 fuel blends are estimated using NMR spectroscopy. İn the presented workit can be concluded that glycerol ketal and pine oil can be successfully used in diesel fuels as antioxidant additivity.

СРАВНЕНИЕ МАТЕМАТИЧЕСКИХ МОДЕЛЕЙ КИНЕТИКИ РЕАКЦИЙ ПОЛУЧЕНИЯ БИОДИЗЕЛЬНОГО ТОПЛИВА

Several different mathematical models describing the process of biodiesel production from triglycerides during the transesterification reaction of vegetable oil with monohydric alcohols (methanol, ethanol) were investigated and compared. The analysis revealed the difficulty of comparing different mathematical models and the lack of a unified approach to modeling the process under study. The most accurate of all analyzed models to describe and predict the progress of this process is the Schwartz model

Production of Biodiesel from Soybean Oil in Less Time and at Low Temperature

The heterogeneous catalyst plays an important role in the production of biodiesel at industrial level. In present work, the utilization of wollastonite as a heterogeneous catalyst is attempted to explore its non-biomedical application. Wollastonite was synthesized by using the auto combustion method and L-alanine was used as a fuel for combustion. The X-ray diffraction pattern reveals the phase purity of wollastonite. The Fourier transform infrared spectra of the calcined precursor show the presence of characteristics functional groups in wollastonite. To evaluate the catalytic ability of the prepared wollastonite, transesterification reaction of soybean oil with methanol was performed. Following the reaction, the biodiesel, glycerol and the catalyst were separated by centrifugation. Optimization of the percentage of catalyst used in biodiesel production was done by using various quantities of catalyst during the transesterification reaction and subjecting the produced biodiesel to gas chromatography. It can be concluded that combined alkali metal oxide and silica in wollastonite has assisted in production of biodiesel (82.6%) in a less time and at a low temperature.

The Influence of Si/Al Ratio on the Physicochemical and Catalytic Properties of MgO/ZSM-5 Catalyst in Transesterification Reaction of Rapeseed Oil

This work presents the comparative physicochemical and catalytic studies of metal oxide MgO catalysts in a transesterification reaction. The influence of the Si/Al ratio in the catalytic material on their catalytic properties in the studied process was extensively evaluated. In addition, the effect of the type of zeolite ZSM-5 form on the catalytic reactivity of MgO based catalysts was investigated. In order to achieve the main goals of this work, a series of MgO/ZSM-5 catalysts were prepared via the impregnation method. Their physicochemical properties were studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD), BET, FTIR and TPD-CO2 methods. The highest activity in the studied process exhibited MgO catalyst supported on ZSM-5 characterized by the highest ratio between silica and alumina. The most active catalyst system in the transesterification reaction was 10% MgO/ZSM-5 (Si/Al = 280), which showed the highest value of higher fatty acid methyl esters (94.6%) and high yield of triglyceride conversion (92.9%). The high activity of this system is explained by the alkalinity, sorption properties in relation to methanol and its high specific surface area compared to the rest of the investigated MgO based catalysts.

Biodiesel production from Spirulina algae oil over [Cu(H2PDC)(H2O)2] complex using transesterification reaction: Experimental study and DFT approach

Spirulina algae oil possesses high potency for biodiesel production through transesterification reaction. Fatty acids of Spirulina algae oil were derived and identified by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) technique included Palmitoleic acid, Palmitic acid, Linoleic acid, Margaric acid, Oleic acid, Arachidic acid, Behenic acid, Tricosanoic acid, and Lignoceric acid. In this research, [Cu(H2PDC)(H2O)2] complex was synthesized using of 2,6-pyridinedicarboxylic acid ligand via a hydrothermal method. [Cu(H2PDC)(H2O)2] has been identified using techniques such as single crystal X-ray diffraction (SXRD), X-ray powder diffraction (PXRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Thermo gravimetric Analysis (TGA) and infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In parallel, the electronic structure, net atomic charges and HOMO/LUMO analysis are interpreted using density functional calculations for studied compound. In continuation, the transesterification reaction of Spirulina algae oil with methanol was performed to produce biodiesel using Cu(H2PDC)(H2O)2 complex. The operating conditions of the reaction, including, temperature, methanol to oil ratio, and catalyst content were checked and screened. The observed results indicate that [Cu(H2PDC)(H2O)2] complex acts as a suitable catalyst for transesterification reaction of Spirulina algae oil with 98.45% conversion percent under reaction conditions 0.15 g catalyst, algae oil-to-methanol volume ratio of 1:3, reaction temperature 80 °C, and 48 h.

Plasma-assisted catalytic route for transesterification reactions at room temperature

Biodiesel has been currently obtained from the transesterification reaction of vegetable oils, including residual oil as waste cooking oil (WCO), and usually in the presence of a catalyst. Advanced methods, such as plasma, have been studied to produce biodiesel since it allows for a milder conditions, mainly by decreasing both reaction temperature and time of production. The objective of this work is to investigate the plasma-assisted catalytic route for the monoesters transesterification reactions. H3PMo and NaOCH3 were used as acid and basic catalysts, respectively. The batch plasma reactor used in this work was composed by a borosilicate glass tube with concentric electrodes, in which ethyl acetate and methanol were feed. The effects of the plasma associated with both acid and basic catalysts were investigated in the ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure. In general, plasma-assisted catalytic routes showed higher ethyl acetate conversions, when compared to the routes with no plasma under the same experimental conditions. For example, the ethyl acetate conversion increased from 38% to 77% when plasma is assisting the acid catalytic reaction during 90 min. This level of conversion is comparable with values achieved for the reaction in the presence of basic catalyst without plasma, although in a shorter time of reaction. The synergistic effect between the plasma and the catalysts provided an increase in the reaction rate constants, and high ethyl acetate conversions in shorter reaction times. These findings indicate the plasma-assisted catalyst routes as promising for the production of biodiesel under room temperature, especially for the production from waste oils, which requires the use of acid catalysts and usually under extreme conditions.

Preparation and Characterization of Heterogeneous Catalyst from Gelam Wood (Melaleuca leucadendron) for Biodiesel Production

Recently, many researchers have explored the potential use of ash as a catalyst, due to the availability of various mineral elements in it. The ashes themselves can be obtained from various agricultural waste of biomass, including from the burning of woods. In this study, the ash that was used as a raw material for a heterogeneous catalyst was obtained from the burning of gelam wood (Melaleuca leucadendron). After the burning, the ash was sieved to have particles of homogenous size. The ash was then activated with a solution of 1 M H2SO4 and 0.1 M KOH, consecutively. Potassium was then impregnated onto the activated ash using 30% and 60% (w/w) KOH solution, followed by calcination at 800°C for 3 hours. The impregnated catalysts were then characterized with FTIR, XRD, and SEM-EDX. The catalyst was tested for its ability in the transesterification reaction of palm oil by varying the methanol to oil mole ratio, the amount of catalyst used, and the reaction time. The optimal reaction conditions for biodiesel production using this catalyst include a 12:1 methanol to oil mole ratio, 10.0% weight ratio of the catalyst (catalyst weight to the oil volume), 6 hours of reaction time at 65°C and stirring speed of 600 rpm. By using this catalyst, the biodiesel production reached up to 99.0% in conversion rate, with a product that satisfactorily meets the ASTM D-6751 standards in terms of its density, kinematic viscosity, and acid number.

The role of methoxy species on the transesterification reaction of castor oil on Ni-Mg-Al calcined hydrotalcites

In this work hydrotalcites with Ni/(Ni + Mg) ratios = 0.0, 0.33, 0.66 and ratio (Ni+Mg)/Al= 3, were synthesized. The hydrotalcite precursors were calcined and used as catalysts to study the effect of Ni content on the activity for transesterification of castor oil. The catalysts were characterized by physisorption of N2, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), temperature programmed desorption (TPD) of CO2 and Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy of methanol adsorption. The reaction activity was measured by the production of each fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) using gas chromatography (GC). The highest activity and quantity of adsorbed methanol corresponds to the Ni2Mg1-C sample. It was found that the addition of nickel increases the number of sites of medium basic force. Methanol adsorption on the catalysts was studied by FT-IR and a relationship was established between the methoxy ions on the surface and the activity towards transesterification. Attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy (ATR-IR) showed the existence of methoxy ions in solution when methanol was added to a calcined hydrotalcite and heated; with this data an alternative mechanism for basic heterogeneous catalysis was proposed. The reaction main steps are formation of a methoxy ion on the catalyst surface, followed by the reaction of the methoxy ion with triglycerides or fatty acid in the liquid phase.

Pengaruh Doping Ca dan K pada γ-Al2O3 terhadap Sifat Fisik Katalis pada Transesterifikasi Minyak Kelapa

Metal doping plays important role in increasing catalytic activity of catalyst materials. In this work, Ca and K were doped to the γ-Al2O3 by dry impregnation method to study the crystallinity, surface area, activation energy, and yield in the coconut oil transesterification reaction. The success of doping was shown in the characterization of Ca/γ-Al2O3 and K/γ-Al2O­3 using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) which increasing in crystallinity from 62.2% (γ-Al2O3) to 69.3 (K/γ-Al2O3) and 76.0 (Ca/γ-Al2O3). The emerging peak of 2θ characteristics of K (29.70° and 32.65°) and Ca (25.35°, 26.77°, and 27.17°) on the γ-Al2O3 (37.66°, 45.82° and 67.22 °) was also observed. Characterization by the Surface Area Analyzer (SAA) shows that the K/γ-Al2O3 catalyst has a smaller surface area (34.03 m2/g) than Ca/γ-Al2O3 (83.77 m2/g), but a higher pore diameter (66.12 Å) than Ca/γ-Al2O3 (35.22 Å). The K/γ-Al2O­3 catalyst produced greater FAME yield (93.19%) than Ca/γ-Al2O3 (29.76%) at a catalyst concentration of 2.5%, reaction time 150 s, and ultrasonic frequency of 40 kHz. The quality of the FAME catalyzed by K/γ-Al2O­3 fulfills four test parameters: density, kinematic viscosity, flash point, and pour point according to SNI 04-7182-2006 standards.

Using shrimp shells as based catalysts for FAME production from palm oil feedstock

In this study, waste shrimp shells from industry were used as a heterogeneous bio-based catalyst for trans-esterification reaction of fresh palm oil. CaO was prepared from shrimp shells calcination. Surface area, phase composition, and basicity of the calcined shrimp shell catalysts were studied using N2 adsorption (BET), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and CO2 temperature-programmed-desorption (CO2-TPD), respectively. The influence of shrimp shells calcination temperature and operation condition, methanol to palm oil ratio on trans-esterification reaction, were investigated. Five hours trans-esterification was carried out at 65℃ using different shrimp shell at four different calcination temperature: 700, 750, 800 and 850℃ with 9:1 methanol to palm oil ratio to determine the suitable calcined catalyst with the highest FAME yield. Methanol to palm oil ratios were varied from 6:1, 9:1, 12:1 and 15:1 with the selected catalyst. According to the results, the highest basic strength of mixed CaO and hydroxy-apatite phases were received by 800℃ calcined shrimp shell catalyst, with the highest FAME yield of 87.54% under the optimum condition reaction: 65℃ reaction temperature, 5 h reaction time, 9 wt% catalyst loading, and 9:1 methanol to palm oil ratio.