G Protein-coupled Receptors Trafficking Research Articles

Quantitative approaches for studying G protein-coupled receptor signalling and pharmacology.

G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signalling pathways underlie numerous physiological processes, are implicated in many diseases and are major targets for therapeutics. There are more than 800 GPCRs, which together transduce a vast array of extracellular stimuli into a variety of intracellular signals via heterotrimeric G protein activation and multiple downstream effectors. A key challenge in cell biology research and the pharmaceutical industry is developing tools that enable the quantitative investigation of GPCR signalling pathways to gain mechanistic insights into the varied cellular functions and pharmacology of GPCRs. Recent progress in this area has been rapid and extensive. In this Review, we provide a critical overview of these new, state-of-the-art approaches to investigate GPCR signalling pathways. These include novel sensors, Förster or bioluminescence resonance energy transfer assays, libraries of tagged G proteins and transcriptional reporters. These approaches enable improved quantitative studies of different stages of GPCR signalling, including GPCR activation, G protein activation, second messenger (cAMP and Ca2+) signalling, β-arrestin recruitment and the internalisation and intracellular trafficking of GPCRs.

An engineered trafficking biosensor reveals a role for DNAJC13 in DOR downregulation.

Trafficking of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) through the endosomal-lysosomal pathway is critical to homeostatic regulation of GPCRs following activation with agonist. Identifying the genes involved in GPCR trafficking is challenging due to the complexity of sorting operations and the large number of cellular proteins involved in the process. Here, we developed a high-sensitivity biosensor for GPCR expression and agonist-induced trafficking to the lysosome by leveraging the ability of the engineered peroxidase APEX2 to activate the fluorogenic substrate Amplex UltraRed (AUR). We used the GPCR-APEX2/AUR assay to perform a genome-wide CRISPR interference screen focused on identifying genes regulating expression and trafficking of the δ-opioid receptor (DOR). We identified 492 genes consisting of both known and new regulators of DOR function. We demonstrate that one new regulator, DNAJC13, controls trafficking of multiple GPCRs, including DOR, through the endosomal-lysosomal pathway by regulating the composition of the endosomal proteome and endosomal homeostasis.

Differential regulation of G protein-coupled receptor-associated proteins in the caudate and the putamen of cynomolgus macaques following chronic ethanol drinking.

The dorsal striatum is composed of the caudate nucleus and the putamen in human and non-human primates. These two regions receive different cortical projections and are functionally distinct. The caudate is involved in the control of goal-directed behaviors, while the putamen is implicated in habit learning and formation. Previous reports indicate that ethanol differentially influences neurotransmission in these two regions. Because neurotransmitters primarily signal through G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to modulate neuronal activity, the present study aimed to determine whether ethanol had a region-dependent impact on the expression of proteins that are involved in the trafficking and function of GPCRs, including G protein subunits and their effectors, protein kinases, and elements of the cytoskeleton. Western blotting was performed to examine protein levels in the caudate and the putamen of male cynomolgus macaques that self-administered ethanol for 1 year under free access conditions, along with control animals that self-administered an isocaloric sweetened solution under identical operant conditions. Among the 18 proteins studied, we found that the levels of one protein (PKCβ) were increased, and 13 proteins (Gαi1/3, Gαi2, Gαo, Gβ1γ, PKCα, PKCε, CaMKII, GSK3β, β-actin, cofilin, α-tubulin, and tubulin polymerization promoting protein) were reduced in the caudate of alcohol-drinking macaques. However, ethanol did not alter the expression of any proteins examined in the putamen. These observations underscore the unique vulnerability of the caudate nucleus to changes in protein expression induced by chronic ethanol exposure. Whether these alterations are associated with ethanol-induced dysregulation of GPCR function and neurotransmission warrants future investigation.

β-arrestin1 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase adaptor for substrate linear polyubiquitination

G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling and trafficking are regulated by multiple mechanisms, including posttranslational modifications such as ubiquitination by E3 ubiquitin ligases. E3 ligases have been linked to agonist-stimulated ubiquitination of GPCRs via simultaneous binding to βarrestins. In addition, βarrestins have been suggested to assist E3 ligases for ubiquitination of key effector molecules, yet mechanistic insight is lacking. Here, we developed an invitro reconstituted system and show that βarrestin1 (βarr1) serves as an adaptor between the effector protein signal-transducing adaptor molecule 1 (STAM1) and the E3 ligase atrophin-interacting protein 4. Via mass spectrometry, we identified seven lysine residues within STAM1 that are ubiquitinated and several types of ubiquitin linkages. We provide evidence that βarr1 facilitates the formation of linear polyubiquitin chains at lysine residue 136 on STAM1. This lysine residue is important for stabilizing the βarr1:STAM1 interaction in cells following GPCR activation. Our study identifies atrophin-interacting protein 4 as only the second E3 ligase known to conjugate linear polyubiquitin chains and a possible role for linear ubiquitin chains in GPCR signaling and trafficking.

The GPCR adaptor protein Norbin regulates S1PR1 trafficking and the morphology, cell cycle and survival of PC12 cells

Norbin is an adaptor protein that binds numerous G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), is highly expressed in neurons, and is essential for a functioning nervous system in rodent models. Yet, beyond its control of neurite outgrowth and synaptic plasticity, few cellular roles of Norbin have been investigated to date. Furthermore, while Norbin is known to regulate the steady-state cell surface levels of several GPCRs, only in one case has the protein been shown to control the agonist-induced receptor internalisation which serves to attenuate GPCR signalling. Here, we generated a Norbin-deficient PC12 cell line which enabled us to study both the cellular functions of Norbin and its roles in GPCR trafficking and signalling. We show that Norbin limits cell size and spreading, and is required for the growth, viability and cell cycle progression of PC12 cells. We also found that Norbin regulates both the steady-state surface level and agonist-induced internalisation of the GPCR sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1PR1) in these cells, suggesting that its role in agonist-dependent GPCR trafficking is more widespread than previously appreciated. Finally, we show that Norbin limits the S1P-stimulated activation of Akt and p38 Mapk, and is required for the activation of Erk in PC12 cells. Together, our findings provide a better understanding of the cellular functions of Norbin and its control of GPCR trafficking.

Sequence-directed concentration of G protein-coupled receptors in COPII vesicles

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest superfamily of plasma membrane signaling proteins. However, virtually nothing is known about their recruitment to COPII vesicles for forward delivery after synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Here, we demonstrate that some GPCRs are highly concentrated at ER exit sites (ERES) before COPII budding. Angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2R) and CXCR4 concentration are directed by a di-acidic motif and a 9-residue domain, respectively, and these motifs also control receptor ER-Golgi traffic. We further show that AT2R interacts with Sar1 GTPase and that distinct GPCRs have different ER-Golgi transport rates via COPII which is independent of their concentration at ERES. Collectively, these data demonstrate that GPCRs can be actively captured by COPII via specific motifs and direct interaction with COPII components that in turn affects their export dynamics, and provide important insights into COPII targeting and forward trafficking of nascent GPCRs.

Functions and mechanisms of the GPCR adaptor protein Norbin.

Norbin (Neurochondrin, NCDN) is a highly conserved 79 kDa adaptor protein that was first identified more than a quarter of a century ago as a gene up-regulated in rat hippocampus upon induction of long-term potentiation. Most research has focussed on the role of Norbin in the nervous system, where the protein is highly expressed. Norbin regulates neuronal morphology and synaptic plasticity, and is essential for normal brain development and homeostasis. Dysregulation of Norbin is linked to a variety of neurological conditions. Recently, Norbin was shown to be expressed in myeloid cells as well as neurons. Myeloid-cell specific deletion revealed an important role of Norbin as a suppressor of neutrophil-derived innate immunity. Norbin limits the ability of neutrophils to clear bacterial infections by curbing the responsiveness of these cells to inflammatory and infectious stimuli. Mechanistically, Norbin regulates cell responses through binding to its interactors, in particular to a wide range of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Norbin association with GPCRs controls GPCR trafficking and signalling. Other important Norbin interactors are the Rac guanine-nucleotide exchange factor P-Rex1 and protein kinase A. Downstream signalling pathways regulated by Norbin include ERK, Ca2+ and the small GTPase Rac. Here, we review the current understanding of Norbin structure, expression and its roles in health and disease. We also explore Norbin signalling through its interactors, with a particular focus on GPCR trafficking and signalling. Finally, we discuss avenues that could be pursued in the future to increase our understanding of Norbin biology.

Control of Gαq signaling dynamics and GPCR cross-talk by GRKs.

Numerous processes contribute to the regulation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), but relatively little is known about rapid mechanisms that control signaling on the seconds time scale or regulate cross-talk between receptors. Here, we reveal that the ability of some GPCR kinases (GRKs) to bind Gαq both drives acute signaling desensitization and regulates functional interactions between GPCRs. GRK2/3-mediated acute desensitization occurs within seconds, is rapidly reversible, and can occur upon local, subcellular activation. This rapid desensitization is kinase independent, insensitive to pharmacological inhibition, and generalizable across receptor families and effectors. We also find that the ability of GRK2 to bind G proteins also enables it to regulate the extent and timing of Gαq-dependent signaling cross-talk between GPCRs. Last, we find that G protein/GRK2 interactions enable a novel form of GPCR trafficking cross-talk. Together, this work reveals potent forms of Gαq-dependent GPCR regulation with wide-ranging pharmacological and physiological implications.

Genetically encoded fluorescent biosensors for GPCR research.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) regulate a wide range of physiological and pathophysiological cellular processes, thus it is important to understand how GPCRs are activated and function in various cellular contexts. In particular, the activation process of GPCRs is dynamically regulated upon various extracellular stimuli, and emerging evidence suggests the subcellular functions of GPCRs at endosomes and other organelles. Therefore, precise monitoring of the GPCR activation process with high spatiotemporal resolution is required to investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms of GPCR functions. In this review, we will introduce genetically encoded fluorescent biosensors that can precisely monitor the real-time GPCR activation process in live cells. The process includes the binding of extracellular GPCR ligands, conformational change of GPCR, recruitment of G proteins or β-arrestin, GPCR internalization and trafficking, and the GPCR-related downstream signaling events. We will introduce fluorescent GPCR biosensors based on a variety of strategies such as fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET), bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET), circular permuted fluorescent protein (cpFP), and nanobody. We will discuss the pros and cons of these GPCR biosensors as well as their applications in GPCR research.

Human C1orf27 protein interacts with α2A-adrenergic receptor and regulates its anterograde transport

The molecular mechanisms underlying the anterograde surface transport of G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) after their synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are not well defined. In C. elegans, odorant response abnormal 4 has been implicated in the delivery of olfactory GPCRs to the cilia of chemosensory neurons. However, the function and regulation of its human homolog, C1orf27, in GPCR transport or in general membrane trafficking remain unknown. Here, we demonstrate that siRNA-mediated knockdown of C1orf27 markedly impedes the ER-to-Golgi export kinetics of newly synthesized α2A-adrenergic receptor (α2A-AR), a prototypic GPCR, with the half-time being prolonged by more than 65%, in mammalian cells in retention using the selective hooks assays. Using modified bioluminescence resonance energy transfer assays and ELISAs, we also show that C1orf27 knockdown significantly inhibits the surface transport of α2A-AR. Similarly, C1orf27 knockout by CRISPR-Cas9 markedly suppresses the ER–Golgi-surface transport of α2A-AR. In addition, we demonstrate that C1orf27 depletion attenuates the export of β2-AR and dopamine D2 receptor but not of epidermal growth factor receptor. We further show that C1orf27 physically associates with α2A-AR, specifically via its third intracellular loop and C terminus. Taken together, these data demonstrate an important role of C1orf27 in the trafficking of nascent GPCRs from the ER to the cell surface through the Golgi and provide novel insights into the regulation of the biosynthesis and anterograde transport of the GPCR family members.

G protein‐coupled receptor regulation of the alpha‐arrestin ARRDC3

Adaptor proteins are an important class of proteins that help to maintain proper spatiotemporal control of cell signaling. One of the best‐studied families of adaptor proteins are the ubiquitously expressed beta‐arrestins, which are known to be key regulators of G protein‐coupled receptor (GPCR) function. Recently another family of arrestins, termed the alpha‐arrestins, were discovered and shown to be expressed in mammalian cells. While alpha‐ and beta‐arrestins share minimal sequence homology, they are predicted to be structurally similar, and therefore may be subject to common regulatory mechanisms. However, while GPCR regulation of beta‐arrestin function has been well characterized, it remains entirely unknown how GPCRs might regulate alpha‐arrestins, such as ARRDC3. We recently showed that ARRDC3 is a multifunctional adaptor that distinctly regulates protease‐activated receptor‐1 (PAR1) signaling and trafficking, but it remains unknown how these distinct ARRDC3 functions may be regulated. PAR1 is a GPCR for the protease thrombin and is known to regulate a diverse array of physiological functions in health and disease, thus, it is important to better understand the molecular mechanisms that control PAR1 function. The objective of this study is to understand the mechanisms that control ARRDC3 multifaceted functions. We hypothesize that GPCRs regulate ARRDC3 function via distinct processes that enable diverse functions. Using biochemical and microscopy‐based techniques, we show that PAR1 may regulate ARRDC3 through modulation of post‐translational modifications, including ubiquitination. We also show that ubiquitin is critical for regulating distinct ARRDC3 functions, including regulation of GPCR signaling and trafficking, through various mechanisms that may include control of protein stability, subcellular localization, and protein‐protein interactions. Additionally, ARRDC3 has previously been shown to act as a tumor suppressor in highly invasive triple‐negative breast cancers. Thus, in future studies we will assess the role of ubiquitination on ARRDC3 tumor suppressor function in vitro in vivo. The results of these studies will advance our understanding of how alpha‐arrestins may contribute to GPCR regulation and may lead to the identification of novel targets for therapeutic development to treat metastatic breast cancer.

Role of PDZ adaptor-mediated recruiment of myosin VI in GPCR trafficking and signaling

GIPC (GAIP interacting protein, C terminus) is a PDZ-domain containing protein that has been shown to interact with the c-tails of various G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).GIPC also serves as a cargo adaptor protein for the unconventional myosin, myosin VI. We demonstrate that GIPC binding to myosin VI releases motor autoinhibition and facilitates smooth, fast, processive cargo transport on cellular actin networks. In parallel, receptor engagement with GIPC influences GPCR membrane trafficking and downstream signaling profile.

Cholesterol-dependent endocytosis of GPCRs: implications in pathophysiology and therapeutics.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of transmembrane proteins that relay extracellular signals across the plasma membrane and elicit an intricate cascade of cellular signaling events. A significantly large fraction of available drugs target GPCRs in order to exert fine control over functional outcomes from these receptors in pathological conditions. In this context, endocytosis and intracellular trafficking of GPCRs stringently regulate signaling outcomes from GPCRs within physiologically relevant spatiotemporal regimes. The membrane microenvironment around GPCRs has recently emerged as a key player in receptor function. Cholesterol is the single most abundant lipid in the eukaryotic plasma membrane and plays a central role in membrane organization and dynamics, with far-reaching functional implications in cellular physiology. In this review, we discuss current excitements in GPCR endocytosis and trafficking, with an emphasis on the role of membrane cholesterol. We envision that a detailed understanding of the contribution of membrane lipids such as cholesterol in spatiotemporal regulation of GPCR signaling would enable the development of therapeutic interventions fine-tuned to receptors residing in specific membrane microenvironments.

Endocytic trafficking and signaling of proton‐sensing receptor GPR65

Proton-sensing G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) allow cells to sense and respond to changes in extracellular pH. Although pH disturbances have profound effects on cell function and disease progression, little is known about how proton-sensing GPCR activation, trafficking and signaling from distinct intracellular compartments contribute to cellular responses. Here we use GPR65, a proton-sensing GPCR that contributes to pathological conditions characterized by acidic tissue microenvironments such as cancer and chronic inflammatory conditions, as a prototype to study these questions. We use live imaging of HEK293 cells expressing tagged versions of our protein of interest, GPR65, to visualize receptor trafficking, sorting to intracellular compartments, and receptor activation using signaling and conformational biosensors in real time. Our preliminary results indicate that GPR65 localizes to intracellular compartments at steady state and recruits conformational biosensors to both the plasma membrane and intracellular compartments when exposed to neutral and acidic pH. Characterizing GPR65 trafficking and activation within the endosomal pathway will help us understand how proton-sensing receptors contribute to normal physiology and disease and provide new strategies to treat pathological conditions associated with acidic microenvironments.

Membrane cholesterol regulates endocytosis and trafficking of the serotonin1A receptor: Insights from acute cholesterol depletion

Endocytosis and intracellular trafficking constitute important regulatory features associated with G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) function. GPCR endocytosis involves several remodeling events at the plasma membrane orchestrated by a concerted interplay of a large number of proteins and membrane lipids. Although considerable literature exists on the protein framework underlying GPCR endocytosis, the role of membrane lipids in this process remains largely unexplored. In order to explore the role of membrane cholesterol (an essential and important lipid in higher eukaryotes) in GPCR endocytosis, we monitored the effect of acute cholesterol depletion using methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) on endocytosis and intracellular trafficking of the serotonin1A receptor, an important neurotransmitter GPCR. Our results show that the serotonin1A receptor exhibits agonist-induced clathrin-mediated endocytosis with a concentration-dependent inhibition in internalization with increasing concentrations of MβCD, which was restored upon cholesterol replenishment. Interestingly, subsequent to internalization under these conditions, serotonin1A receptors were re-routed toward lysosomal degradation, instead of endosomal recycling observed under normal conditions, thereby implicating membrane cholesterol in modulation of intracellular trafficking of the receptor. This raises the possibility of a novel cholesterol-dependent role of intracellular sorting proteins in GPCR trafficking. These results differ from our previous observations on the endocytosis of the serotonin1A receptor upon statin-induced chronic cholesterol depletion, in terms of endocytic pathway. We conclude that analysis of complex cellular trafficking events such as GPCR endocytosis under acute and chronic cholesterol depletion conditions should be carried out with caution due to fundamental differences underlying these processes.

Isolation of Lipid Rafts by the Detergent-Based and Non-detergent-Based Methods for Localization of GPCRs with Immunoblotting and Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy.

The understanding of how biological membranes are organized and how they function has constantly been evolving over the past decades. Instead of just serving as a medium in which specific proteins are located, certain parts of the lipid bilayer contribute to platforms that assemble signaling complexes by providing a microenvironment that facilitates effective protein-protein interactions. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and relevant signaling molecules, including the heterotrimeric G proteins, key enzymes such as kinases and phosphatases, trafficking proteins, and secondary messengers, preferentially partition to these highly organized cell membrane microdomains, called lipid rafts. Lipid rafts are essential for the trafficking and signaling of GPCRs. The study of GPCR biology in the context of lipid rafts involves the localization of the GPCR of interest in lipid rafts, at the basal state and upon receptor agonism, and the evaluation of the biological functions of the GPCR in appropriate cell lines. The lack of standardized methodologies to study lipid rafts, in general, and of the workings of GPCRs in lipid rafts, in particular, and the inescapable drawbacks of current methods have hampered the complete understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms. Newer methodologies that allow the study of GPCRs in their native form are needed. The use of complementary approaches that produce mutually supportive results appears to be the best way for drawing conclusions with regard to the distribution and activity of GPCRs in lipid rafts.

β-arrestins, their mechanisms of action and multiple roles in the biology of G protein-coupled receptors

The stimulation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) induces biological responses to a wide range of extracellular cues. The heterotrimeric G proteins, which are recruited to the active conformation of GPCRs, lead to the generation of various diffusible second messengers. Only two other families of proteins exhibit the remarkable characteristic of recognizing and binding to the active conformation of most GPCRs: GPCR kinases (GRKs) and β-arrestins. These two families of proteins were initially identified as key players in the desensitization of G protein activation by GPCRs. Over the years, β-arrestins have been implicated in an increasing number of interactions with non-receptor proteins, expanding the range of cellular functions in which they are involved. It is now well established that β-arrestins, by scaffolding and recruiting protein complexes in an agonist-dependent manner, directly regulate the trafficking and signaling of GPCRs. Remarkable advances have been made in recent years which have made it possible i) to identify biased ligands capable, by stabilizing particular conformations of a growing number of GPCRs, of activating or blocking the action of β-arrestins independently of that of G proteins, some of these ligands holding great therapeutic interest; ii) to demonstrate β-arrestins' role in the compartmentalization of GPCR signaling within the cell, and iii) to understand the molecular details of their interaction with GPCRs and of their activation through structural and biophysical approaches.

Rab43 GTPase directs postsynaptic trafficking and neuron-specific sorting of G protein–coupled receptors

G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) are important modulators of synaptic functions. A fundamental but poorly addressed question in neurobiology is how targeted GPCR trafficking is achieved. Rab GTPases are the master regulators of vesicle-mediated membrane trafficking, but their functions in the synaptic presentation of newly synthesized GPCRs are virtually unknown. Here, we investigate the role of Rab43, via dominant-negative inhibition and CRISPR–Cas9–mediated KO, in the export trafficking of α2-adrenergic receptor (α2-AR) and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) in primary neurons and cells. We demonstrate that Rab43 differentially regulates the overall surface expression of endogenous α2-AR and mAChR, as well as their signaling, in primary neurons. In parallel, Rab43 exerts distinct effects on the dendritic and postsynaptic transport of specific α2B-AR and M3 mAChR subtypes. More interestingly, the selective actions of Rab43 toward α2B-AR and M3 mAChR are neuronal cell specific and dictated by direct interaction. These data reveal novel, neuron-specific functions for Rab43 in the dendritic and postsynaptic targeting and sorting of GPCRs and imply multiple forward delivery routes for different GPCRs in neurons. Overall, this study provides important insights into regulatory mechanisms of GPCR anterograde traffic to the functional destination in neurons.

Methods for Studying Endocytotic Pathways of Herpesvirus Encoded G Protein-Coupled Receptors.

Endocytosis is a fundamental process involved in trafficking of various extracellular and transmembrane molecules from the cell surface to its interior. This enables cells to communicate and respond to external environments, maintain cellular homeostasis, and transduce signals. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute a family of receptors with seven transmembrane alpha-helical domains (7TM receptors) expressed at the cell surface, where they regulate physiological and pathological cellular processes. Several herpesviruses encode receptors (vGPCRs) which benefits the virus by avoiding host immune surveillance, supporting viral dissemination, and thereby establishing widespread and lifelong infection, processes where receptor signaling and/or endocytosis seem central. vGPCRs are rising as potential drug targets as exemplified by the cytomegalovirus-encoded receptor US28, where its constitutive internalization has been exploited for selective drug delivery in virus infected cells. Therefore, studying GPCR trafficking is of great importance. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge of endocytic and cell localization properties of vGPCRs and methodological approaches used for studying receptor internalization. Using such novel approaches, we show constitutive internalization of the BILF1 receptor from human and porcine γ-1 herpesviruses and present motifs from the eukaryotic linear motif (ELM) resources with importance for vGPCR endocytosis.

Post-Translational Modifications of G Protein-Coupled Receptors Control Cellular Signaling Dynamics in Space and Time.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a large family comprising >800 signaling receptors that regulate numerous cellular and physiologic responses. GPCRs have been implicated in numerous diseases and represent the largest class of drug targets. Although advances in GPCR structure and pharmacology have improved drug discovery, the regulation of GPCR function by diverse post-translational modifications (PTMs) has received minimal attention. Over 200 PTMs are known to exist in mammalian cells, yet only a few have been reported for GPCRs. Early studies revealed phosphorylation as a major regulator of GPCR signaling, whereas later reports implicated a function for ubiquitination, glycosylation, and palmitoylation in GPCR biology. Although our knowledge of GPCR phosphorylation is extensive, our knowledge of the modifying enzymes, regulation, and function of other GPCR PTMs is limited. In this review we provide a comprehensive overview of GPCR post-translational modifications with a greater focus on new discoveries. We discuss the subcellular location and regulatory mechanisms that control post-translational modifications of GPCRs. The functional implications of newly discovered GPCR PTMs on receptor folding, biosynthesis, endocytic trafficking, dimerization, compartmentalized signaling, and biased signaling are also provided. Methods to detect and study GPCR PTMs as well as PTM crosstalk are further highlighted. Finally, we conclude with a discussion of the implications of GPCR PTMs in human disease and their importance for drug discovery. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Post-translational modification of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) controls all aspects of receptor function; however, the detection and study of diverse types of GPCR modifications are limited. A thorough understanding of the role and mechanisms by which diverse post-translational modifications regulate GPCR signaling and trafficking is essential for understanding dysregulated mechanisms in disease and for improving and refining drug development for GPCRs.