Wildlife Trafficking Research Articles

The role of the academic community in combating wildlife trafficking

In Indonesia, the value of the illegal trade in wildlife reaches more than US one million per year. Apart from being a source country, Indonesia also has a significantly growing home market for illegally traded wildlife as pets, skins, and medicines.The illegal wildlife trade uses various modus operandi, directed by organized criminal groups and carried out by a variety of perpetrators on the ground, often very poor locals from rural communities. Whilst this trading activity is a transnational crime, that is, across national and continental borders, and may use the same supply routes usually associated with other crimes such as weapons, drugs and people trafficking, it is usually only the poachers on the ground who are caught and prosecuted. In summary, universities and their researchers have a significant role in the fight against the illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade, in monitoring wildlife populations and poaching activity, and in changing people's behavior, so that the activities of hunting, trading, or owning protected wildlife become unattractive and unacceptable to all communities. This role draws on disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities, encouraging those interdisciplinary behaviours so important for effective environmental management that delivers for the long-term health and well-being of people.

Standardization of molecular analysis techniques for DNA identification of bird species of the Psittacidae family

Birds of the Psittacidae family belong to one of the groups with the most negative impact from wildlife trafficking, which has consequences beyond removing these species from the wild. This work aimed to standardize DNA extraction techniques from blood, feathers, and eggshells of Psittacidae to molecular identification and help track the place of origin of the seized bird. Blood and feather samples from adult of the Turquoise-fronted Parrot, Amazona aestiva, individuals (n = 5) were collected, and additionally, eggshells from nests (n = 3). We tested five nucleic acid extraction techniques.DNA concentrations and purity were evaluated by fluorimetry and spectrophotometry. As a result, the extraction by phenol provided a higher concentration of DNA from blood (20 µg/ml) and feathers (0.4 µg/ml), while for the eggshells, the acetate technique was the most efficient (33 µg/ml). Polymerase chain reaction amplification of mitochondrial cytochrome B (CytB) and 16 S genes were positive for all DNA samples. We obtained favorable conditions for DNA extraction from blood, feathers, and eggshells of the Turquoise-fronted Parrot using the five DNA extraction methods tested. These protocols can be used as a reference for other species of Psittacidae, and can be applied for biodiversity and forensic studies.

Tackling Environmental Crimes and Biological Threats Across Borders of the Greater Mekong Subregion

Wildlife trafficking and other commodities associated with environmental crimes traded across the borders of the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) carry direct or indirect risks for biological threats. Outbreaks associated with these threats can have devasting implications for human populations as well as for farmed or native animal and plant populations. Although the links between environmental crimes and biological threats are obvious, we see two disconnected responses which limits the ability to tackle both the crime and the risks of biological threats. On one hand, there are efforts to improve law enforcement prioritisation and capability to disrupt transnational organised crime. On the other hand, we see increasing resources channelled through a One Health framework that aim to improve early warning surveillance of emerging infectious disease with a focus on diseases that can affect livestock or zoonotic diseases that can affect human health. The COVID-19 pandemic has provided a unique opportunity to explore alternative strategies, particularly the need to expand the operational definition of One Health to usher in more joined up partnerships between security sector personnel and human and animal health personnel working along borders of the GMS. This policy commentary draws on a literature review and informal stakeholder discussions conducted in preparation for on ongoing formal research project. This commentary provides policy and program considerations for improving both the enforcement of environmental crimes and early warning biological threat surveillance, preparedness and response in the Greater Mekong Subregion.

Wild animals housed at the IBAMA triage center in Southern Brazil, 2005–2021: a glimpse into the endless conflicts between man and other animals.

Spurred on by the illegal billion-dollar revenue, the capture and trade of wild fauna remain the leading illegal activities in Brazil, and elsewhere. We present and discuss insights into the wild animals housed at the Wild Animal Triage Center in Southern Brazil. Recorded data from 2005 to 2021 were used. A total of 36,950 animals were sheltered in that period, and most of them were common passerines (24.182) such as the Saffron Finch, and Red-crested Cardinal, among many others confiscated after inspections or reports. Passerines have long been the top trafficked species in Brazil and abroad, where birdkeeping has strong cultural and economic values. The totals per class were 29,784 birds, 2,584 insects, 2,237 reptiles, and 2,170 mammals. Since they were mostly relinquished by the population rather than seized, most mammals, insects, and reptiles were probably unwanted guests in human spaces, tendency that illustrates the human difficulty in coexisting with wildlife. A total of 3,085 animals exhibited some threat or risk of extinction, which, as a general rule, grants them conservation priority. However, regardless of class, most animals (31,142) in this study were rated as least concern on the red lists, a trend in wildlife trafficking linked to the category criteria of being widely distributed species with abundant populations, and often, in close contact with human neighbors. Maintaining an abundance of common and nonthreatened species can be justified by the greater extent of their ecosystem services, from a local to global scale. Our results further highlight the urgent need to change our ways of interacting with wildlife.

Critical research gaps in understanding Southeast Asian women’s wildlife trade and use practices

The hunting and consumption of wildlife is a global practice with practices that are socially nested, mediated, and shared across social categories, including gender. Research into wildlife trade increasingly recognizes the importance of understanding and investigating social drivers and processes of hunting and consumption. However, studies of social norms, motivations, and actions specific to women are still lacking within wildlife trade literature, particularly within Southeast Asia. Women are central to how a society operates and to societal practices, and they are fundamental actors in initiating change in these practices. In Southeast Asia, women are especially powerful actors within resident matrilineal and bilateral societies. This article will reflect on wildlife trafficking through the roles and activities of women. While women’s narratives are lacking across all current wildlife trade research, I will highlight in this article critical research gaps, gender-specific issues in methodology, and important research opportunities.

Detecting illegal wildlife trafficking via real time tomography 3D X-ray imaging and automated algorithms

Wildlife trafficking is a global problem involving the deliberate and illegal transport of wildlife across international borders. Animals are either removed directly from their natural environment or bred specifically to fuel demand driven by activities such as the illegal pet trade or for purported medicinal reasons. In Australia, wildlife trafficking poses a serious environmental and biosecurity risk through the removal of native species and the introduction of exotic invasive wildlife. This has the potential to impact the natural ecosystem and Australia’s multibillion-dollar agricultural industry. To help detect and restrict this activity, innovative technologies such as 3D X-ray CT technology using Real Time Tomography has been trialed to create wildlife detection algorithms for deployment across Australian mail/traveller luggage pathways. Known species of trafficked Australian wildlife and additional model species of exotics were scanned to create an image reference library for algorithm detection. A total of 294 scans from 13 species of lizards, birds and fish were used to develop initial wildlife algorithms with a detection rate of 82% with a false alarm rate at 1.6%. In combination with human and biosecurity dog detection, this innovative technology is a promising complementary platform for wildlife detection at Australian international borders, with potential worldwide applications.

Changing attitudes: lessons for countering the trafficking of cultural objects

ABSTRACT The illicit transnational trades in cultural goods and wildlife, while distinct, share many characteristics. This article identifies and compares the intricacies of controlling trafficking in cultural objects and wildlife from a customs perspective. Findings indicate that in Norwegian customs, the countering of wildlife trafficking benefits from at least two conditions: 1) officers have become more aware of the characteristics and harmful consequences of the trade, and 2) efficient interactions with other stakeholders ensure tangible outcomes in the form of seizures and punishment of offenders. While challenges remain, these factors serve to motivate officers and, in the last decade, have strengthened the control of wildlife trafficking. The countering of illicit trade in cultural objects, however, does not benefit from such circumstances. Findings suggest that the officers’ awareness of, and attitude towards, trafficking of such materials are key factors to consider for evolving the response.

Domestic networks contribute to the diversity and composition of live wildlife trafficked in urban markets in Peru

Amazonian countries have historically sourced the international wildlife trade. However, little is known about their domestic trade, which is often overlooked in estimates of trafficking. Peruvian law prohibits the unauthorized trade and possession of wildlife, but illegal sales are common in urban markets. To describe the dynamics, diversity, and composition of this illegal trade, we surveyed live wildlife for sale in urban markets in 16 Peruvian departments from 2007 to 2012. We identified the main hotspots of market trafficking, detected 193 species being sold alive, and estimate that 0.35–1.25 million animals were trafficked in this period. Iquitos, Lima, Pucallpa, and Tumbes were the most active and diverse trafficking nodes. Amazonian cities trafficked mostly local species, whereas in other cities the proportion of local species varied significantly (39–67%). Species dissimilarity across cities was high and correlated with their distance along trafficking routes. To assess if the market-based trade was representative of the national trade, we compared species richness in markets with that of country-wide confiscations. At least 430 species were confiscated in Peru between 2001 and 2019, but only 50% of species overlapped with markets in the same cities and period of our surveys. Our data suggest that urban markets are connected in a structured network that provides consumers with a diverse selection of species from across the country. Authorities should consider organizational aspects of trafficking networks to ensure success. Failure to eradicate wildlife trafficking in markets constitutes a serious threat to wildlife conservation and One Health in Peru and beyond.

Zoonotic Spillover in an Era of Rapid Deforestation of Tropical Areas and Unprecedented Wildlife Trafficking: Into the Wild

Rapid deforestation and unprecedented wildlife trafficking are important factors triggering the rate of zoonotic spillover from animals to humans. Consequently, this leads to the emergence and re-emergence of zoonotic infectious diseases among the human population. Deforestation is an important ecological disruption that leads to the loss of biodiversity. The loss of biodiversity results in the persistence of highest-quality hosts of zoonotic pathogens dominating the low-diversity communities, a process termed the dilution effect. Activities like intensive farming and logging that resulted in deforestation bring vulnerable people in close contact with these highest-quality reservoir hosts (wildlife). As a result of this vulnerability, there is an increased risk of spillover, leading to zoonotic infection in humans and eventually disease outbreaks during human–human transmission. One prominent example of a disease of wildlife origin is the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus 2), even though the original source has not been found. Another important factor facilitating the risk of spillover and emergence of zoonotic infectious diseases is wildlife trafficking. This involves illegal hunting and trading of wildlife and their products, which increases the risk of spillover as a result of exchange of bodily fluids and bloodmeals between humans and wildlife during the hunting and butchering of animals’ carcasses. Consequently, little or no hygiene protocol and poor handling practices during the wildlife-trade chain expose poachers, consumers, and local market sellers to the risk of zoonotic diseases. Despite the interventions on deforestation-induced spillover and wildlife trafficking-associated spillover, there are still knowledge and research gaps that need to be addressed towards preventing the outbreaks of future zoonotic infectious diseases. In response to this, there is a need for interdisciplinary and intersectoral collaborations among researchers from various fields as well as sectors in minimizing the risk of zoonotic spillover driven by deforestation and wildlife trafficking at the human–animal–environmental nexus. In addition, there is a need for integrated and unified evidence-based policy formulation that puts an end to deforestation and wildlife trafficking, especially in tropical areas such as Africa and Asia.

COVID-19 Crisis, Wildlife Trafficking and Environmental Governance in Nigeria

Illegal wildlife trade and wildlife trafficking are global environmental risks which is underscored not just by its convergence with other serious crimes but by the cross-border and trans-boundary nature of the crime, and its implications in many global health problems. The COVID-19 crisis, currently estimated to have been contracted from bats by humans through an intermediate host such as a pangolin, has propelled the global health implications of wildlife trade onto the global stage, thereby questioning global and national environmental governance structures to combat illegal wildlife trade and trafficking. Through a literature-based desk review, this paper appraises international environmental regulation such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES); wildlife regulatory governance in Nigeria such as The Endangered Species (Control of International Trade and Traffic) Act and their implications in the current global pandemic. It finds that weak legal systems, lack of enforcement capacity, high corruption levels and insufficient coordination, knowledge, and capacity are among the critical drivers of this crisis. It recommends legal and policy prioritization and effective environmental governance with regards to combatting wildlife trafficking as a panacea for present and future pandemics.

CRIMES AGAINST WILD ANIMALS IN THE WEST OF SANTA CATARINA, BRAZIL: AN ANALYSIS FROM ASSESSMENTS AND SEIZURES CARRIED OUT BY THE ENVIRONMENTAL MILITARY POLICE OF CHAPECÓ

Several reports carried out by public agencies are related to conducts that altogether may constitute animal trafficking, which, along with other anthropic practices, contribute to the process of decline in animal species. Our objective was to collect data on environmental crimes related to fauna in the area of jurisdiction of the Environmental Military Police of Chapecó (EMPC), in the state of Santa Catarina_Brazil. For that, a documentary survey was carried out in the archives of that organ from January/1999 to December/2017. Environmental crimes related to fauna comprised 196 complaints, with 56 of them resulting in assessments, and 1,016 animals were seized in 33 municipalities. Chapecó was the municipality with the largest number of cases (97 assessments/539 animals seized), but the per capita values are below of 56.2% of the surveyed municipalities. Out of the total number of animals seized, 980 were birds, 28 were mammals, six were lizards and two were turtles. Most of the animals seized were released into nature (752). It is likely that the data do not represent the actual amount of wild animals kept in captivity or hunted in the region because of the difficulty of the inspection and/or structure for proper allocation of the animals.

Economic Implications of Trade in Wildlife: From Legality to Illegality

Illegal trade in wildlife has caused the decline of many species in Nigeria, Africa and the world. Illegal killing, smuggling and other forms of illicit trade in wildlife do not only hurt the economy and the ecosystem, but they also fuel organised crime as well as feed corruption and insecurity, undermining the sustainable development of the country. Wildlife in Nigeria is under pressure as most endangered species, are traded both domestically and internationally. Nigeria is not only a source of wildlife products but has also emerged as a major transit country for wildlife trafficking according to the current World wildlife Crime Report. Using a literature-based review, this paper critically examines the legality and illegality of wildlife trade in Nigeria in line with the provisions of extant laws and how this scenario has grossly hampered global efforts toward combating wildlife trafficking. It proffers amendment of the text of extant laws to reflect the intents and global aspirations to curb this scourge and preserve biodiversity for posterity. It further advocates global partnerships efforts to strengthen enforcement capacity to investigate and prosecute offenders.

Voluntary consensus based geospatial data standards for the global illegal trade in wild fauna and flora

We have more data about wildlife trafficking than ever before, but it remains underutilized for decision-making. Central to effective wildlife trafficking interventions is collection, aggregation, and analysis of data across a range of source, transit, and destination geographies. Many data are geospatial, but these data cannot be effectively accessed or aggregated without appropriate geospatial data standards. Our goal was to create geospatial data standards to help advance efforts to combat wildlife trafficking. We achieved our goal using voluntary, participatory, and engagement-based workshops with diverse and multisectoral stakeholders, online portals, and electronic communication with more than 100 participants on three continents. The standards support data-to-decision efforts in the field, for example indictments of key figures within wildlife trafficking, and disruption of their networks. Geospatial data standards help enable broader utilization of wildlife trafficking data across disciplines and sectors, accelerate aggregation and analysis of data across space and time, advance evidence-based decision making, and reduce wildlife trafficking.

Success in animal skin fashion in African countries or the boom of the wet market.

The world and the way things are done have changed, from selling clothing in brick-and-mortar stores to online shopping through social media platforms. Population growth has significantly contributed to an increased clothing demand, which, in turn, has increased the demand for animal skin. Traditional markets, also known as wet markets, are considered as major zoonotic disease reservoirs due to human and animal contact. Some groups and individuals continue to believe in traditional medicine and clothing that is made from animal skin, and such beliefs are more accessible with the presence of wet markets. Hence, animal poaching and trafficking have increased to meet the high demands, primarily in the Western world. Poverty is a well-known motivation to commit a crime. Conservationists should not only look at the animal regulation site to propose a solution to animal poaching and trafficking but should also consider communal poverty. Thus, this review aimed to highlight the role of wet market and animal skin fashion on animal welfare and human health.

Impact of the Anthropocene on the status of the world's small carnivores: A global macroecological perspective

AbstractAimThe continued erosion of global biodiversity resulting from Earth's sixth mass extinction event has been particularly pronounced on mammalian carnivores. Here, we evaluated the status of the world's small carnivore species (SCS) (<15 kg), examined their trending status and assessed the threats they face globally and regionally.LocationWorldwide.TaxonSmall carnivore species.MethodsUsing a global 100 km2 grid, we analysed the impact of 12 variables (anthropogenic and landscape) on general small carnivore richness (SCR), threatened species richness and the number of declining SCS. We applied simple, multiple and simultaneous regression models to explore the associations between landscape conditions and human impacts on SCR.ResultsApproximately 22% (n = 49) of SCS are classified as threatened (vulnerable, endangered and critically endangered), with the largest number occurring in the Indo‐Malayan, followed by the Afrotropical regions. The family Mustelidae had the greatest number of threatened species, followed by the Felidae, Viverridae and Eupleridae. Euplerids, however, had the highest proportion of threatened species (90%). Human accessibility had the strongest negative impact on global species richness, whereas landscape modification gradient, indigenous lands and intact forest structure, all predicted higher levels of overall and threatened SCR. Approximately 84% of SCS are threatened by illegal wildlife trafficking, with greatest proportion hailing from the Indo‐Malayan region, followed by the Afrotropical region.ConclusionsLandscape conditions play a leading role in the conservation of SCS. However, the impact of humans has dramatically modified the spatial patterns of small carnivores across the globe. We believe new incentives promoting more sustainable landscapes could facilitate coexistence between carnivores and human communities. We advocate for new policies promoting sustainable practices, which are needed to help mitigate extinction risk and facilitate coexistence with small carnivores across the planet's human‐dominated landscapes.

Optimizing DNA Analyses of Pangolin Products from the Trade for Species Identification in Vietnam

To support law enforcement related to illegal wildlife trafficking in Vietnam, DNA analyses have been widely used to identify species based on products seized from the trade. Pangolins are one of the most threatened mammal groups in Vietnam and across the world because they have been trafficked in huge numbers and considered the most traded mammals globally. Although the government and management agencies have implemented several deterrent measures to reduce the illicit trade of pangolins, a high number of violations with large seizures have still been detected in recent years in the country. Species identification of pangolin products is often challenging, as many products don’t have sufficient morphological diagnoses, especially their meat, hair, and scale. In this study, we present a protocol, which can be applied in laboratories in Vietnam, for extracting and amplifying a fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome C oxidase subunit 1 (COI) from pangolin’s scales and hairs. This protocol was successfully employed to generate a fragment the COI gene from 10 confiscated pangolin samples. The results show for the first time that three samples originated from an African pangolin species and highlight the importance of applying molecular approaches to combating wildlife trafficking in Vietnam.

The Gospel According to Ah Meng: Conservation, Celebrity, and the Singapore Story

Abstract This essay reflects on the story of probably the world’s most famous captive orangutan, Ah Meng, who died in 2008 but has since been “replaced” by her granddaughter, Ishta, who took over as the “new face” of Singapore Zoo in 2016. Ah Meng’s story is interesting for what it conceals and what it reveals, including the recent history of wildlife trafficking in Southeast Asia, for which Singapore – despite its conservationist credentials – acts as an important hub. Ah Meng’s rescue and rehabilitation also raises interesting questions about the Singapore Story, the popular name given to the heroic narrative of historical survival and economic development associated with Singapore’s ruling party, the PAP (People’s Action Party), and especially its former leader, Lee Kuan Yew. This essay considers the extent to which Ah Meng is more than just a national ambassador animal or a global conservation icon, but is also a multifaceted figure for Singapore’s progress in an unevenly developed capitalist world order in which it insists on playing a leading part.

A proposal for the usage of reconnaissance satellites to monitor international human and wildlife trafficking hotspots

The last two decades that brought about valuable advancements in spatial resolution capabilities on satellites give rise to critical opportunities to protect life on Earth. Human and wildlife trafficking occurs at devastating levels all over the world, most without being properly addressed. In this proposal, I have listed various recommendations to portray how a new structure could be implemented to use reconnaissance satellites to monitor international human and wildlife trafficking by having hotspot areas for these crimes under 24-h surveillance by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), utilizing the highest performance limit. There comes a point where political affiliations and implications need to be put aside and concern for the protection of human rights and animal welfare needs to be front and center in decisions being made. We cannot, in good conscience, make technological advancements in space that have the means to track and reduce human and animal suffering, and not use them due to geo-political disagreements.

Implications of wildlife trafficking on the health and conservation efforts of an endangered turtle species in Colombia

AbstractThe Colombian slider turtle (Trachemys venusta callirostris) is an endangered species, and one of the most common reptiles admitted to wildlife facilities in Colombia due to wildlife trafficking. To identify the most common diseases at admission and identify factors affecting rehabilitation and translocation, we retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 567 individuals admitted to a wildlife facility in Bogotá, Colombia (2005–2009). In total, 70% of turtles had at least one clinical problem identified at admission, with metabolic bone disease (MBD) (40.8%), ulcerative shell disease (USD) (29%), and dysecdysis (23.9%) being the most reported. Only 44% (249/560; 7 turtles with unknown disposition were excluded) were translocated while the remaining 56% (311/560) died. We used a multivariable logistic regression and found that factors significantly associated (p <.05) with successful rehabilitation included life stage and health status at admission. Adult and juvenile turtles were 3.0 and 2.4 times more likely to be successfully rehabilitated for translocation, respectively, than hatchlings. Individuals identified as healthy at admission were 3.3 times more likely to be rehabilitated than individuals with medical problems. Most medical problems diagnosed at admission are the result of inadequate husbandry from private ownership, and this negatively impacts rehabilitation and eventual translocation of individuals back to their natural habitats. We highlight important considerations for wildlife facilities in the conservation efforts of this endangered species.

Dissecting the illegal pangolin trade in China: An insight from seizures data reports

Wildlife trafficking poses a major threat to global biodiversity. Species such as pangolins are particularly vulnerable and trade continues almost unabated despite numerous interventions aimed at eradicating illegal wildlife trade. Despite restrictions on the pangolin trade, thousands of pangolins continue to be intercepted annually. We focused on China because of the recent delisting of pangolins from the Chinese pharmacopeia, and their removal from healthcare insurance, despite deeply ingrained traditions of having pangolins for ethno-medicinal use. We collated pangolin interception data from public online media seizure reports to characterize the pangolin trade within China, and found that a total of 326 independent seizures equivalent to 143,130 pangolins (31,676 individuals and 222,908 kg of scale) were reported in 26 provinces. Pangolin domestic seizures are greatest in the southern cities of Dehong, Fangchenggang, and Guangzhou. Also, we found 17 countries within the global pangolins range which were the major source of the pangolin shipments to China. The number of arrests and convictions was much lower than the number of pangolin incidents reported. Our results show a significant increase in the volume of scales and number of live pangolin seizures after amended endangered species law came into effect in 2018, and recorded the highest number of individual pangolin interceptions. China has shown increasing wildlife seizures over time, owing partly to emergent trends in the international wildlife trade as well as increasing global demand for ethnomedicine. The future eradication of illegal wildlife trade in China is dependent not only on stringent border control and offender prosecution but also the; removal of other threatened species from the pharmacopeia and healthcare insurance which includes wildlife derivatives. Furthermore, our work highlights importance of current policy intervention to combat the pangolin trade within China, and the need for further interventions both within China and in export countries.